The DOI matches its Crossref record; 11 of the 13 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 16 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century1
Open accessAbstract
<section class="abstract">Abstract This article examines a variety of practices that involve water cures in Japanese medical history. Focusing on a health manual, Byōka suchi (What a household with sick persons should know, published between 1832‐1835), by Hirano Jūsei , this article describes how water cures were applied for many symptoms and include listening, washing, bathing in hot water, spitting, imbibing, soaking and immersion. Hirano’s text about the application of water cures referenced both Japanese and Chinese classical literature, but also incorporated Western ideas of hydrotherapy. </section>
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This article reconstructs water-cure practices in Hirano Jūsei’s Edo-period household health manual *Byōka suchi* (1832–1835), showing how water was used in six modes for many symptoms. It argues that Hirano combined Japanese and Chinese classical medicine with Western hydrotherapeutic and naturopathic ideas, alongside purification motifs for stigmatized illnesses.
Key findings
- *Byōka suchi* organizes water therapies into six categories: listening to dripping water for insomnia; washing for tired eyes, cuts, venereal ulcers, skin disease, and postpartum uterine bleeding; hot baths for diarrhoea, cold legs from nosebleed, and rigidity; spitting for unconsciousness, non-crying newborns, convulsions, and postpartum dizziness/bleeding; imbibing for severe vomiting and diarrhoea, food poisoning, worm pain, and palpitations; and affusion/immersion for mental disorders, seizures, paralysis, apoplexy, madness, dog bite, fevers, smallpox, leprosy, and other conditions. The table cites fascicle/page locations such as insomnia 1:49, tired eyes 2:36, diarrhoea 5:35, cold legs with nosebleed 6:26, and non-crying newborn 4:23.
- The manual explains water’s effects through cooling, stimulation, pore constriction or opening, detoxification of heat, and yin–yang balancing; hot baths were meant to promote sweating. Water is repeatedly presented as a harmless alternative to drugs, especially against lay misuse of medicines such as aconite.
- Hirano cites Japanese and Chinese sources—including *Shoku Nihongi*, *Ōkagami*, *Eiga monogatari*, *Kagerou nikki*, *Kusharon jusho*, *Somon*, *Shōkanron*, *Shiki*, and *Kaitō itsushi*—and mentions Dutch water cures. The article suggests Western influence through Leiden-school ideas of nature’s healing power and later naturopathy figures such as Priessnitz, Graham, Broussais, Kneipp, and Thomson.
- Purification themes appear in water use for madness and leprosy, linked to Edo-period stigma; after the Meiji Restoration, water cures were promoted by figures such as Ogata Masakiyo (1887), Takagi Shimakichi (1926), and Ito Sakon (1907).
Methods
- Historical and textual analysis of *Byōka suchi*, published in 1832–1835 in eight fascicles, collecting its scattered references to water cures and reconstructing the physiology and pathology behind them.
- Comparison with Chinese and Japanese classical medical texts and with Western hydrotherapy/naturopathy literature; the article uses a table of water applications and cited fascicle/page numbers.
- No clinical trial or quantitative sample is used; the study relies on the manual, related Edo medical texts, and secondary scholarship.
Limitations
- Stated: the texts Hirano cites for further explanation—*Kisai bigen*, *Suiryō zokuben*, and *Kansuikō*—are lost, leaving only their titles; *Byōka suchi* itself omits detailed explanations of why and how water works.
- Stated: the exact nature of Western influence cannot be clarified, and some interpretations are speculative, such as whether the “sleeping pill” refers to an anaesthetic and why hot baths were recommended for nosebleeds.
- Evident: the reconstruction depends on fragmentary references and authorial inference, with no patient outcomes or systematic evidence, so the findings are historically situated rather than generalizable.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
31 Own interpretation · 18 No basis given · 12 Sources not found · 10 Own result · 2 Not checked yet
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The belief in 'the functional power of nature 自然作用力' of the body is representative of the vision of disease and healing in Byōka suchi.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cold water was recommended to wash cuts, tired eyes, venereal ulcers and skin diseases.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the assertion that cold water has the direct effect of strengthening the body is a feature of Byōka suchi.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Byōka suchi always omits detailed explanation of why and how water achieves efficacy, saying only: 'The details are not to be mentioned here, see Kisai bigen 既済微言 (Subtle talk of all aid) and Suiryō zokuben 水療俗弁 (Popular talk of the water cure)'foot_4 or 'see Kansuikō 潅水考 (Consideration of splashing water) for further explanation'.10”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The fragmentary references to water cures in Byōka suchi are sufficient to reconstruct the physiology and pathology behind them.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, we also find in Byōka suchi the use of pumped water for yin symptoms, such as extreme yin disease and chills of long duration.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Pumping cold water over the patient was the main method used among the water cures described in Byōka suchi.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this article describes how water cures were applied for many symptoms and include listening, washing, bathing in hot water, spitting, imbibing, soaking and immersion.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As for the role of 'the functional power of nature', Byōka suchi explains that fever is one of its manifestations, in that it serves to remove excessive heat from the body thereby restoring the balance with the external airs.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such phenomena as diarrhoea and pus are also attributed to the work of 'the functional power of nature' as it tries to purge pathogenic evil poisons from the body.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, the skin diseases referred to here are mostly leprosy, venereal ulcers and small boils.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Byōka suchi does not clearly voice any negative view of madness, yet it admits that it is sometimes necessary to 'scold severely, beat, bind tightly, or confine at home' those who are mad in order to suppress their excited souls, tamashi'i 神気.58”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [58]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It may, at first, seem contradictory, but it was based on the principle of yin and yang, whereby, like night and day, each was in a constant state of movement and when one had reached its extremity it would change into the other.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Being innately yin, in most instances water would be pumped on to people with yang symptoms, thereby combating the disease.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by tracing some of the abovementioned records we can demonstrate that bathing or soaking the body in cold water was believed to cure afflictions of the brain, eyes and liver, as well as swelling and so on.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Sources
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“By the Edo period the association of disease and 'impurity' had mostly faded, and been replaced by systematic pathology.56”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [56]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this respect, Hirano's water cures may be regarded as a form of imbibing Western medical knowledge into Japanese practice.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“From the Meiji period onward, the association of water cures and the idea of healing power in nature that seems to have originated from the West became more apparent.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These may suggest a certain conceptual overlap between Hirano's water cures and Western practices.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another source of Hirano's ideas are traditional beliefs about the purifying effect of water.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They seem to have received considerable influence from the trend of naturopathy in the West.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, as repeatedly claimed in the cases of 'dripping sound', 'washing' and 'imbibing', Hirano's critical attitude against the abuse of medicine may also be associated with the idea of the healing power of nature.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover the term 'healing power of nature' can be found in some medical texts of the Edo-period in connection with Western medicine.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems that Hirano's water cure also bears witness to the adaption and adoption of European knowledge and skills in domestic medicine.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“We find a great deal of evidence to show that skin diseases and madness were often stigmatised in Edo-period society.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [57]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [58]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [59]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“It is known to us that several medical texts of the Leiden schools were translated by Edo physicians.50”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [50]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is thus possible at least to surmise that the explanation of the water cure in Byōka suchi, regarding the pores of the skin, also reflects a certain influence from the West.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems that Hirano's idea of a healing power of nature originates in contemporary Western medical developments, particularly that of the Leiden school, which was concerned particularly with fever and pus.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 27
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As pointed out in Byōka suchi, 'all toxins quicken with heat, and cease with coldness'.31”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Byōka suchi recommends the sound of water because, whether or not it is effective, it is at least 'harmless'.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, when water is pumped cold onto the skin, it tightens the skin's pores and strengthens the constitution.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a few cases Hirano recommended hot water to warm up the chilled parts of the body.Two prescriptions advise hot baths for diarrhoea and cold legs due to nosebleed.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hirano Jūsei's Byōka suchi contains scattered references to the healing powers of water for many symptoms, when splashed, spat, imbibed, bathed in, and so on.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The therapeutic methods of applying water mentioned in Byōka suchi can be divided into five categories: application by (1) listening, (2) washing, (3) bathing in hot water, (4) spitting, (5) imbibing and (6) soaking and immersion (Table 1).”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Drinking cold water had a cooling effect for various pains that occured in the inner organs.It was apparently effective for kakuran 霍乱 (severe vomiting and diarrhoea), 27 food poisoning, and pain caused by threadworms or pinworms.28”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In several places Byōka suchi contends that one should try 'harmless' water rather than indiscriminately resorting to medicine, which results in nothing but harm.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The whereabouts and the contents of the texts he cites are lost to us today, and only their titles appear in Byōka suchi.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The texts Hirano cites for water-cure explanations cannot be consulted, so their contents must be inferred from titles and context.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spitting water over the face was considered an effective stimulant for a patient who had lost consciousness, a newborn infant who failed to cry, for infantile convulsions and post-partum bleeding or dizziness.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather than run the risk of amateurs prescribing inappropriate treatment or medicines, water is recommended as a handy and 'harmless' option.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of 'washing', water is able to cure skin diseases, and 'affusion' to cure mental disorders.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Byōka suchi considers leprosy to be the most fearful of contagious diseases, for the ancients called it the 'tenkeibyō 天刑病 (disease of punishment from heaven)'.59”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [59]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We can find a number of examples of the therapeutic use of water and cold water massage in health manuals and medical texts written by Western medicine doctors and health reformers.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After the Meiji Restoration (1868), water cures became more popular among Japanese.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The benefits of water cures are often attributed to the coldness of water, and its ability to stimulate the senses, energise the skin, constrict the pores of the skin (or open them, in the case of hot baths), and so on.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“A number of physicians and health reformers began to promote water cures.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [51]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [53]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As synonyms, Byōka suchi from time to time employs such terms as 'umaretsukitaru karada no kaneai 生まれつきたる体のかねあい (innate function of the body), ten'nen no hataraki 天然の働き (innate”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Being yin in nature, water also establishes a balance between yin and yang symptoms, thereby restoring the body to health.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The second fascicle of Byōka suchi tells of a leper who cured his disease with pure water, taking refuge in the mountains and eating only vegetables and fruit.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this view, treatment should primarily aim at drawing on the healing power of nature that comes from within the patient, and medicines, acupuncture and moxibustion are all fundamentally supplementary.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore the dripping method may perhaps function by concentrating the mind on counting the sounds of water, thereby preventing the soul from moving aimlessly about.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The application of the water cure for cold damage 傷寒 2 already appears in Shōkanron 傷寒論 (shanghan lun in Chinese).3 Thereafter it disappears from the records, and for a long period, many physicians were not keen on this method.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fujikawa 1912
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hirano's text about the application of water cures referenced both Japanese and Chinese classical literature, but also incorporated Western ideas of hydrotherapy.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“as late as the end of the Edo period, several physicians such as Nakagami Kinkei 中神琴渓, Kouta Tsunetomo 古宇田知常, Tachibana Shōken 橘尚賢 and Hirano Genryō 平野元良 began to make claims for the effectiveness of the water cure and recommended [applying] it to fever from cold damage.4 Water cure had therefore gained popularity in the late Edo period (1603-1867) after a period of eclipse.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fujikawa 1912
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though it remains a mere speculation, it may be possible to see here the influence of water cures in the contemporary West.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this view of the water cure as a peculiarly Dutch practice is probably a misunderstanding on Hirano's part.Although there may have been Dutch texts on the subject, it is more probable that Hirano had come across Dutch translations of texts that were in circulation across contemporary Europe.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Sources
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The passage above argues that the stimulus of cold water has an energising effect on the skin and ki circulation, thereby strengthening the body.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Presumably Hirano wished to avoid too much overlap between texts and unnecessary discussion of complex theory unsuitable for a popular home medicine text like Byōka suchi.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The coldness of water constricts the pores, thereby blocking evil disease from entering the body.46”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As well as being physically cooling, water may have the effect of symbolically purifying the patient.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Byōka suchi water cures are theorised largely within the context of traditional medicine, while we can also detect a degree of influence derived from European knowledge and practice.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However recent scholars have already emphasised the endeavours of Japanese intellectuals who were at pains to incorporate imported knowledge with their domestic interests in various forms and at various levels.54”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [54]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This illustrates the stigmatisation of lepers and their exclusion from society.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The idea of 'purging' pathogenic evil differentiates Byōka suchi therapy from the standard methods of traditional medicine in Japan, which were in principle based on the concept of 'restoring balance' within the body.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The author's convictions about the extensive applications of water, though not further clarified, may be attributed to a perceived need for purification in stigmatised diseases and, in particular, to influences from the West such as the idea of the 'healing power of nature' or the trend of naturopathy.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In particular, in the eighteenth century it was espoused by the Leiden school, based in Holland, several texts of which were translated by Edo physicians.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [50]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However the practice in pre-modern times may have laid a foundation for the popular reception of water cures later.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This statement implies that the insane were often treated harshly, and suffered all kinds of abuse in the name of treatment.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“To summarise, the use of water cures for mental disorders and leprosy (and possibly for other severe skin diseases too) is probably to be attributed not only to the empirical cleansing of the skin's surface or the cooling of the mind, but also to the pursuit of purification, which seems to have been fuelled by the stigmatisation of those afflictions in the popular view.63”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [63]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although I cannot delineate the content of all the abovementioned texts here, a quick survey of their titles and contents reveals the influence of naturopathy from the West.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the lineage of water cures in Japanese medical history, therefore, it is possible to suggest that Hirano's water cures, in which Western medical concepts are interwoven (although the exact nature of the influence cannot be clarified) in traditional theory, are placed at the very early stage of Japanese medical discourse about Western ideas.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is conspicuous that these concepts do not belong to the vocabulary of traditional medicine, and evoke the concept of natural therapeutics in the West.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Terminology such as 自然作用力 is rather unfamiliar in traditional medicine, and it seems almost certain that Byōka suchi received a certain influence from trends in contemporary Western medicine concerning ideas of healing through nature.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Influence from Western medicine
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the ancient and medieval periods, illness was viewed in Japan as 'impure', and water was applied to 'purify' it.55”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Purification
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to many other yōjō texts of the Edo period, there is no mention of hot springs and their efficacy in Byōka suchi, probably due to the nature of this text being about home medicine and nursing.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
The fragmentary references to water cures in Byōka suchi are sufficient to reconstruct the physiology and pathology behind them.
“This article collects and examines the fragmentary and limited references to water cures that are interspersed throughout the text of Byōka suchi, with the aim of reconstructing the physiology and pathology that lies behind them.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The texts Hirano cites for water-cure explanations cannot be consulted, so their contents must be inferred from titles and context.
“The whereabouts and the contents of the texts he cites are lost to us today, and only their titles appear in Byōka suchi.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
“Two prescriptions advise hot baths for diarrhoea and cold legs due to nosebleed.”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Conclusion
“| Hot baths | Hot baths. | Rigidity (8:9) |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
“The therapeutic methods of applying water mentioned in Byōka suchi can be divided into five categories:”
§ Water Cures in Japan: The Case of a Health Manual in the Early Nineteenth Century 1 > Merits of water cures
“application by (1) listening, (2) washing, (3) bathing in hot water, (4) spitting, (5) imbibing and (6) soaking and immersion (Table 1).”
Citations
Cites
Illness as metaphor ; and, AIDS and its metaphors
Sontag, S. (1990) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,040
Leisure Settings. Bourgeois Culture, Medicine, and the Spa in Modern France
Stewart, M. L., & Mackaman, D. P. (1999) · Labour / Le Travail · doi:10.2307/25149019 · Cited by 69
The English Spa 1560–1815 : A Social History
Porter, R. S. (1990) · Bloomsbury Academic eBooks · doi:10.5040/9781474210089 · Cited by 65
The Medical History of Waters and Spas.
Slack, P., & Porter, R. (1991) · The Economic History Review · doi:10.2307/2597838 · Cited by 61
Clark, S. (1994) · doi:10.2307/1178865 · Cited by 42
Nakamura, E. G. (2006) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 15
Gonzalez, A. (2003) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7402.1338 · Cited by 12
The medical history of waters and spas. Introduction.
Porter, R. (1990) · Medicina e historia · doi:10.1017/s0025727300070940 · Cited by 12
Cowley, G. (2004) · PubMed · Cited by 5
Orienting natural knowledge: the complex career of Hiraga Gennai
Roberts, L. L. (2009) · Endeavour · doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2009.04.009 · Cited by 3
Research works printed but not linked: 13
- rise of commercial medicine in the late Edo period. Nakamura 2005, pp. 75-83. Suzuki relates the popularity of hot springs and daily bathing in the Edo period to changes in concepts of the body. Suzuki 1999, pp. 185-200, and 2001, pp. 197-215. 26 BS 4:30-3. 27 BS 6:3-4. 28 BS 6:4. 29 BS 6:29. References How did Hirano Jūsei get the idea of using water for various afflictions? In Byōka suchi he contends that the use of pumped water for leprosy is his own original invention which 'the ancients have never mentioned'. 38 However, a number of references in Byōka suchi to classic literature suggest that the author collected and widely surveyed examples of water cures described by his prede- cessors. Such titles as Shoku Nihongi 続日本紀 (The sequel to the chronicle of Japan, 797), Ōkagami 大鏡 (Great mirror, 11th century CE), Eiga monogatari 栄花物語 (Tales of Glory, 11-12th century CE), Kagerou nikki 蜻蛉日記 (The Gossamer Years, 975?), Kusharon jusho 倶舎論頌疏 ( Jushelun songshu in Chinese, compiled by Yuan Hui 円暉, Tang 唐 China), Somon 素問 (Huangdi neijing suwen 黄帝内経素問 in Chinese; Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon, Basic Questions, hereafter referred to as Somon), Shōkanron 傷寒論, Shiki 史記 (Shiji in Chinese; the Historical Records, compiled by Sima Qian 36 Ōtomo 1980 'Suichi'. 37 BS 2:37. 38 BS 5:12.
- Shoku Nihongi 続日本紀, compiled by Fujiwara Tsugutada 藤原継縄 in 797 CE. Reprint 1990, annotated by Aoki Kazuo, p. 35. 40 Ōkagami 大鏡, Anonymous. It is thought to have been compiled in the 11th century CE. Reprint 1963, annotated by Matsumura Hiroji, pp. 55-6.
- Tsurezuregusa, by Yoshida Kenkō 吉田兼好 (1310). Reprint 1928, annotated by Nishio Minoru, Yasuraoka Kōsaku, chapter 217 and 362. 42 BS 5:31. References Primary sources Byōka suchi 病家須知. By Hirano, Jūsei 平野重誠 1832-1835. Facsimiled 1998. Annotated by Sakurai, Yuki 桜井由幾. Edojidai josei bunko 江戸時代女性文庫 vols. 95, 96. Tokyo: Taikūsha.
- Kansuihen 潅水編. By Kouta Tsunetomo 古宇田知常 1811. Facsimile edition, possessed by Kenkensai sho'oku 乾々齋書屋. Kinsei kampō igakusho shūsei 近世漢方医学書集成. Ōtsuka, Keisetsu 大塚敬節 and Yakazu, Dōmei 矢数道明 (eds) 1979-. Tokyo: Meicho. Abbreviated as KKIS.
- Kokon chomonzhū 古今著聞集. By Tachibana Narisue 橘成季 1254. Reprint 1978. Annotated by Nagazumi, Yasuaki 永積安明 and Shimada, Isao 島田勇雄. Nihon koten bungaku taikei 日本古典文学大系 vol. 84. Tokyo: Iwanami shoten. Nichiō bunka hikaku 日欧文化比較. By Luis Frois. In Daikōkai jidai sōsho 大航海時代叢書 vol. 11. translated by Okada Akio 岡田章雄 1965. Tokyo: Iwanami.
- Ōkagami 大鏡. Anonymous. Thought to be compiled in the 11th century CE. Reprint 1963. Annotated by Matsumura Hiroji 松村博司, Ōkagami 大鏡, Nihon koten bungaku taikei 日本古典文学大系 vol. 84. Tokyo: Iwanami.
- Saiyūki 西遊記. By Tachibana Nankei 橘南谿 1782-1786. Reprint 1991 Shin Nihon koten bungaku taikei 新日本古典文学大系, vol. 98. Annotated by Munemasa, Iso'o 宗政五十諸. Tokyo: Iwanami.
- Seiseidō itan 生生堂医譚. By Nakagami, Kinkei 中神琴渓 1795. Facsimile 1979. KKIS edition, vol. 17. Shanghanglun 傷寒論. By Zhang Zhongjing 張仲景. 3rd century CE. Edited by Xiong Manqi 熊曼琪. Reprint 2000. Beijing: Renmin weisheng chubanshe.
- Shoku Nihongi 続日本紀. Compiled by Fujiwara Tsugutada 藤原継縄, 797 CE. Reprint 1989- 1998. Annotated by Aoki, Kazuo 青木和夫. Shinnihon koten bungaku taikei 新日本古典文学 大系 vol. 12-16. Tokyo: Iwanami.
- Hirao, Machiko 平尾真智子 and Daidoji, Keiko 大道寺慶子. 'Hirano Jūsei, the Author of 'Byōka suchi' (1832) and His Idea of Natural Healing Power'. Paper presented at the Interna- tional Historical Conference: 150th Anniversary of the Beginning of Modern Western-style Medical Education in Japan, November, 2007.
- Inoue, Shun 井上俊 (ed.) 1987. Furo no shakaigaku 風呂の社会学. Tokyo: Sekaishisōsha.
- Nakano, Eizō 中野栄三 1996. Nyūyoku, sentō no rekishi 入浴・銭湯の歴史. Tokyo: New edition from Yūzankaku.
- and Bathing in the Edo Era Japan'. Presented at Symposium on A History of Cleanliness/Purity, Institute of History and Philosophy, Aca- demia Sinica, June 11-12, 1998, Taiwan, Taipei.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Repentant Bath of Abah Anom's Inabah: A Hydrotherapy for Drug Addicts in Muslim Society
Setio, N. C., Hernawan, A. H., Rusman, R., et al. (2023) · FIKRI Jurnal Kajian Agama Sosial dan Budaya · doi:10.25217/jf.v8i1.3288
“…severe skin diseases, too) is probably to be attributed not only to the empirical cleansing of the skin's surface or the cooling of the mind but also to the pursuit of purification, which seems to have been fuelled by the stigmatization of those afflictions in the popular view (Daidoji, 2009).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Daidoji, K.
- Corresponding author
- Daidoji, Keiko
- Venue
- Asian Medicine
- Publisher
- Walter de Gruyter GmbH
- Published
- 2009
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 80-107
- ISSN
- 1573-420X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-4218
- OpenAlex
- W2139474644
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Asian Medicine (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › History of Medicine Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › History of Science and Medicine
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Complementary and Manual Therapy › Therapeutic Uses of Natural Elements
- Keywords
- water cure, hydrotherapy, health manuals, Edo period medicine, bathing, hot water, spitting, immersion, history of medicine in Japan
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-04, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-04 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
