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On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia
Open accessAbstract
This article pursues two main goals: (1) to reconstruct the history of the 12 zodiac constellation system in the astronomy of ancient Mesopotamia; (2) to reveal traces of this system directly in cuneiform texts. Among the most important circumstances led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of zodiac constellations, including—according to MUL.APIN—the total of 18 (or 17) constellations; (2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each, and (3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into 12 equal parts, 30° each. A sequence of the so-called Normal stars singled out in the zodiacal band is an additional important source shedding light on the history of the Mesopotamian zodiac. The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization. This means that in the second half of the first millennium BC the system of 18 constellations, adopted in MUL.APIN, and the system of 12 zodiacal constellations, borrowed from Babylonians by Greek astronomers, were used in parallel. It is also shown in the article that the system of 12 zodiac constellations was used in magical and astrological text BRM 4.20, dated back approximately to the last third of the fourth century BC.
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36 Own interpretation · 27 Sources not found · 15 No basis given · 8 Own result · 1 Not checked yet
In the paper
“In the Neo-Assyrian period Mesopotamian astronomers (astrologers) carefully observed positions of the Moon and planets relative to fixed stars and constellations.The Letters and Reports of the court astrologers to the Assyrian kings, dating mainly from the seventh century BC, testify this.17”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“It is also shown in the article that the system of 12 zodiac constellations was used in magical and astrological text BRM 4.20, dated back approximately to the last third of the fourth century BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Abstract
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In the paper
“A definition of the zodiac as a constellation band is first encountered in an explicit form in the astronomical treatise MUL.APIN (I iv 31-39).”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“The so-called Astronomical Diaries and other texts regularly recorded the positions of the Moon and planets relative to them.23”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
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“Each such star had its own special name, which combined the name of constellation from MUL.APIN, often in an abbreviated form, 24”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
What the sources say
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In the paper
“This text contains 18 constellations, through which the Moon passes during its monthly motion.10”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Sixteen constellations from the list of MUL.APIN are mentioned in the Late Babylonian astrological text MNB 1849, rev.37-54.20”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20]
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In the paper
“It does not contain the names of four constellations (known from other sources) that were fully or partially located in the zodiacal band.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“The Letters and Reports allow us to reconstruct the list of constellations from the zodiacal band known to Mesopotamian astronomers in the seventh century BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“This idea, however, is not explicitly mentioned in observational texts.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“A comparison with the list from MUL.APIN reveals an almost complete correspondence.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“Observation data on the passages of the Moon and planets relative to Normal stars in the Astronomical Diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
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In the paper
“The constellation Swallow-Fish is mentioned in one Greek horoscope of the first century AD. 28”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [28]
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In the paper
“for all zodiacal constellations (or zodiac signs?), a number of which is 12.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
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In the paper
“But there are not so many reliable evidences, especially evidences that would allow establishing the time of introduction of the 12 constellation system.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations in Mesopotamian texts
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In the paper
“This is the earliest text in the history of astronomy known to us in which number 12 relates to the band of zodiacal constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“For the first time, the number 12 was related to the band of zodiacal constellation in the text WA 77824, which dates back to the fifth century BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
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In the paper
“Thus, in this list 15 constellations were subdivided into 12 parts in such a way that for each of the months II (Ajjaru), III (Simanu), and XII (Addaru) 2 constellations were attributed.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“However, one peculiarity allows us to solve the problem.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
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In the paper
“In the Old Babylonian period (19th-16th centuries BC) the system of Mesopotamian constellations already existed, apparently in almost complete form.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [3]
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In the paper
“The concept of the band of zodiacal constellations was not yet known at that period.6”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6]
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In the paper
“Thus, it can be stated that Mesopotamian astronomers have singled out at least 22 constellations in the zodiacal band in the first millennium BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“Observations of the Moon and planets passages regarding Normal stars and other data from Astronomical Diaries allow reconstructing the list of constellations that were singled out in the zodiacal band in the corresponding period.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
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In the paper
“It contains results of observations of the Moon motion relative to the fixed stars.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“If you interpret this list as the list of all constellations singled out in the zodiacal band, you have to conclude that it is incomplete.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“The last modern dating: the end of the second or, more likely, the beginning of the first millennium BC (in Babylon).19”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [19]
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In the paper
“This is a fundamental difference between the Mesopotamian zodiac and the Greek, which was originally associated with the Sun.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“This means that in the second half of the first millennium BC the system of 18 constellations, adopted in MUL.APIN, and the system of 12 zodiacal constellations, borrowed from Babylonians by Greek astronomers, were used in parallel.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Abstract
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In the paper
“Without knowing these constellations-their figures and positions relative to the stars-it was impossible to determine the positions of Normal stars in the sky.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
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In the paper
“The designations of Normal stars adopted in Astronomical diaries and other texts indicate that the system of 18 constellations was used in Mesopotamia until the end of cuneiform civilization.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Abstract
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In the paper
“(3) development of ideas about mathematical or uniform zodiac, subdivided into 12 equal parts, 30° each.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“There is no doubt that during that period they already knew that the Moon and planets, when they move relative to fixed stars, never go beyond the narrow band of constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“The planets as a special category of stars became also known no later than in the Old Babylonian period;”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4]
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In the paper
“Among the most important circumstances led to appearance of this system: (1) development of ideas about the band of zodiac constellations, including-according to MUL.APIN-the total of 18 (or 17) constellations;”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Abstract
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In the paper
“(2) usage of the schematic year, containing 12 months, 30 days each,”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Abstract
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In the paper
“The decisive role in establishing the system of 12 constellations, apparently, was played by the so-called schematic calendar, in which the year contained only 12 months, 30 days each (it did not involve intercalations).32”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [32]
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In the paper
“This text is an intermediate step because it contains not 18, but 15 constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
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In the paper
“There is a reason to believe that the concept of the band of zodiacal constellations was not known in Mesopotamia of the second millennium BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
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In the paper
“In the fourth century BC the system of 12 zodiacal constellations was apparently already quite widespread in Mesopotamia.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
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In the paper
“The situation changed in the Neo-Assyrian period.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
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In the paper
“Evidence of this system can also be found in Greek astrology.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
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In the paper
“I believe that the presence in this text of the names of stars that can be directly observed in the sky, indicates that other constellation names, found in the same text, also relate to observable objects.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
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In the paper
“The opposite point of view is also expressed in the literature: first a system of 12 zodiac constellations arose and only then a mathematical zodiac was introduced, the latter was subdivided into 12 equal parts, 35 which, in our opinion, does not correspond reality.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
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In the paper
“The 12-part division of the schematic calendar and the uniform zodiac suggested singling out of 12 constellations in the zodiacal band.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This means that we are dealing here with constellations: the text uses the system of 12 zodiac constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the same time a system of 12 zodiac constellations was forming.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It was the system that Greeks encountered when they borrowed the zodiac in Ancient Mesopotamia (the end of the fifth to the beginning of the fourth century BC).29”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“The most important additional impulse for the transition to the system of 12 zodiac constellations was establishing mathematical or uniform zodiac, a circle or band on the celestial sphere, subdivided into 12 equal parts of 30° each.33”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I believe that such a chronological order did take place: first, the mathematical zodiac, associated with the schematic year, appeared and only then the 12 zodiac constellation system was introduced.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regular observations of the Moon and planets relative to constellations and fixed stars, carried out during this period, led to the discovery of the band of zodiacal constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If we were dealing with a system of 12 zodiacal constellations as a prototype, such a variety of designations would be impossible.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“It is known also that the MUL.APIN treatise continued to be copied and quoted in Mesopotamia at least until the last centuries BC. 27”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main role in it was played by schematic calendar and associated uniform zodiac, which was divided into 12 equal parts of 30° each.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After mathematical zodiac was established in Mesopotamian astronomy, an inconsistent situation developed there: following MUL.APIN, 18 constellations were singled out in the band of zodiacal constellations, while the mathematical zodiac contained only 12 parts.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These names correspond to the band of zodiacal constellations, as it is presented in the text BM 77824, as a system of 15, not 12 constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 17
- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cuneiform sources do not single out the zodiac constellations from other constellations.In lexical texts they are found irregularly, alternating in random way with non-zodiac constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These constellations are found in other sections of MUL.APIN, but formally they are not associated there with the band of zodiacal constellations.15”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There are many texts dating back to the second millennium BC, mentioning constellation names.None of them, however, contains any data indicating that this concept was already known in this period.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A distinctive feature is: in this definition Sun is interpreted as one of the planets; its special position among other luminaries is not singled out.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The exact time when MUL.APIN treatise was created is unknown.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The naming system for the zodiac signs has not been stable.There were quite a few variants of the zodiac sign naming in the texts, where the uniform zodiac and the so-called micro-zodiac were used.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their names were related to the names of the zodiac constellations but were given in abbreviations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The definition of the band of 18 (or 17) constellations is found in the MUL.APIN treatise.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, along with the standard accepted names the second sign of the zodiac (Taurus) could be designated as GU 4 , the third sign of the zodiac (Gemini) as SIPA, and the 12th sign of the zodiac (Pisces) as AŠ.GAN 2 .37”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is known that the names of 12 zodiacal signs used in mathematical astronomy and in other texts (where the uniform zodiac was used) were associated with the names of zodiacal constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Whether in this case the text is talking about constellations or the zodiac signs is initially unclear.41”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If in Greece the second zodiac constellation is, as a rule, Taurus, then in Mesopotamia, on the contrary, most texts use one of the spellings of MUL.MUL.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The magical and astrological text BRM 4.20 can also serve as an example.40 It provides a list of rituals along with related dates of their performance.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The system of 12 constellations undoubtedly existed in Mesopotamia in the second half of the first millennium BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations in Mesopotamian texts
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The Seleucid text LBAT 1591 obv.1-4 gives the names of the five planets, followed by 12 signs of the zodiac or the zodiacal constellations 38 ; a standard interpretation-it is the designations of zodiac signs 39 ; however, in our opinion, it is not known exactly how to interpret these names.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [38]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is assumed that the ritual will be successful if during its holding an unknown planet (according to E. Reiner, the Moon) is in a certain position on the zodiac.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it is obvious that it should have been preceded by observations from among those listed by us, most likely those related to the positions of the moon, lunar halos and lunar eclipses relative to constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Mesopotamia of that time the astronomical observations began to be carried out, that inevitably had to lead to discovery of zodiac.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“It was preceded by two events: first, creation of the constellation system that covered almost the entire sky, and second, distinguishing of planets as a special category of stars.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [4]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [5]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Besides constellations, in the first millennium BC Mesopotamian astronomers also singled out about 40 unevenly distributed stars in the zodiac band.22 Modern scholars call them Normal stars.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [22]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This list obviously has an astronomical basis; the constellations are listed in it according to their increasing longitude.11”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [11]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since Normal stars were used in astronomical texts up to the first century AD, it can be concluded that a system of the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN was in use until the end of cuneiform civilization.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Normal stars and the zodiac constellations from MUL.APIN
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Its earliest copies date back to the beginning of seventh century BC, but some fragments apparently date back to the second half of the second millennium BC. 7”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The band of zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In many other cases, however, a clear answer regarding text dating and meaning of designations used in it, is not possible.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the designations of the zodiac signs and the constellations, as a rule, coincided, it is difficult to say what was meant in texts-the constellations or the signs of the zodiac.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations in Mesopotamian texts
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In order to get a system of 12 constellations, you need to make a choice and discard some of the double names.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This text is attributed to the end of the Achaemenid period or the early Seleucid period, that is, it is not older than the last third of the fourth century BC.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Let us consider two examples.
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ungnad, op. cit. (Note 40)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perhaps it refers to the annual movement of the Sun relative to constellations.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The answer is probably contained in the text of the fifth century BC (WA 77824), in which the 15 zodiac constellations are divided into 12 parts, corresponding to the 12 months of the Mesopotamian calendar.30”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Modern scholars attribute the introduction of mathematical zodiac to the end of the fifth-the beginning of the fourth century BC, 34 and this in general is consistent with Greek sources.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
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“It was also partly known to Greek astrology.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > Conclusion
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“A scale of 12 signs of the zodiac assumed 12 constellations in the zodiac band.”
§ On the origin of the 12 zodiac constellation system in ancient Mesopotamia > The system of 12 zodiacal constellations
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The question of when and how the 12-zodiac-constellation system developed has not been studied in existing historical and scientific literature.
“Surprisingly, in the existing historical and scientific literature this question has not been studied yet.”
Citations
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Research works printed but not linked: 20
- Hunger and Pingree, op. cit. (Note 7), pp. 70-1; Hunger and Steele, op. cit. (Note 7), pp. 71-2.
- S. Parpola, Letters from Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars (Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 1993);
- H. Hunger, Astrological Reports to Assyrian Kings (Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 1992).
- Parpola, loc. cit. (Note 17); Hunger, loc. cit. (Note 17); Kurtik, op. cit. (Note 2), pp. 26-9.
- For a detailed discussion of this problem with the results obtained by other scholars, see Hunger and Steele, op. cit. (Note 7), pp. 16-9. See also Hunger and Pingree, op. cit. (Note 7), pp. 10-2; Watson and Horowitz, op. cit. (Note 7), pp. 3-6.
- An appropriate fragment is published in E. Weidner, "Astrologische Geographie im Alten Orient," Archiv für Orientforschung, 20 (1963), 117-21; its duplicate from EAE see in F. Rochberg-Halton, Aspects of Babylonian Celestial Divination: The Lunar Eclipse Tablets of Enūma Anu Enlil (Horn: Verlag Ferdinand Berger & Söhne Gesellschaft, 1988). EAE 20 text a ii 1′-6′. A new edition of the text see: J. Steele, "Mesopotamian Astrological Geography," The Star of Bethlehem and the Magi. Edited by P. Bartel and G. van Kooten (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015), pp. 201-16.
- Rochberg-Halton, op. cit. (Note 20), pp. 10-1;
- Steele, op. cit. (Note 20), pp. 208-10.
- The basic list included 28 stars, but there were also other stars from the zodiacal band that Mesopotamian astronomers used in observations, see A. Sachs and H. Hunger, op. cit. (Note 23), pp. 17-19;
- N.A. Roughton, J.M. Steele and C.B.F. Walker, "A Late Babylonian Normal and Ziqpu Star Texts," Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 58 (2004), 537-572, esp. pp. 550-4, 565-70, Ap. B; A.A. Jones, "Study of Babylonian Observations of Planets Near Normal Stars," Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 58 (2004), 475-536, esp. pp. 481-4;
- The earliest known text of Diaries dates back to -651, the latest Diary is attributed to the middle of the first century BC. Observations of this type were carried out in Mesopotamia, apparently, from the middle of the eighth century BC. For publications of the texts of Diaries see A. Sachs, H. Hunger, Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia. Vol. 1: Diaries from 652 B.C. to 262 B.C.; Vol. 2: Diaries from 261 B.C. to 165 B.C.; Vol. 3: Diaries from 164 B.C. to 75 B.C. (Wien: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1988, 1989, 1991).
- O. Neugebauer and H.B. Van Hoesen, Greek Horoscopes (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1959), pp. 22-3, p.
- Euctemon, the author of the earliest known Greek Parapegma, who observed in Athens in 432 BC, did not yet know apparently the zodiacal constellations in full. However, the 12 zodiac constellations system was undoubtedly already well known to Eudoxus of Cnidus (first half of the fourth century BC). See D.R. Dicks, Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle (Bristole: Thames and Hudson, 1970), p. 156f.; Kurtik, op. cit. (Note 1), pp. 80-1. There is a reason to believe that initially Greeks did not borrow the names of constellations from the Babylonians, but their symbols. When introducing their names for the zodiac constellations, they simply named the corresponding Mesopotamian symbols in Greek, see Kurtik, op. cit. (Note 1), pp. 102-3.
- For its early publication as TE-Tafel see E. Weidner, Handbuch der babylonischen Astronomie. Bd. I (Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs, 1915), pp. 121-2; for a modern publication see H. Hunger F.R. Stephenson, C.B.F. Walker, K.K.C. Yau, in: F.R. Stephenson and C.B.F. Walker (eds), Halley's Comet in History (L.: British Museum Publ., 1985), p. 15, p. 17. A high-quality pho- tograph of the tablet may be found on the British Museum website, see <https://www.british- museum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=800758&p artId=1&searchText=77824&page=1>. For a photo of the front side of the cuneiform tablet, see J.M. Steele, "A Comparison of Astronomical Terminology. . .," Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 16 (2013), 250-60, esp. 256, Fig. 2.
- For schematic calendar see, for example, L. Brack-Bernsen, "The 360-Day Year in Mesopotamia," in: J.M. Steele (ed.), Calendars and Years. Astronomy and Time in the Ancient Near East (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007), pp. 83-100.
- From recent publications, see G.E. Kurtik, "Geometry of the Mesopotamian 'ecliptic'," Bulgarian Astronomical Journal, 28 (2018), 37-41.
- Steele, loc. cit. (Note 1). It was previously assumed that mathematical zodiac appeared in Mesopotamia no later than in the middle of the fifth century BC. The basis for this assumption was the text BM 36599 (+ duplicates), known in modern literature as "S Text" (it was published in A. Aaboe and A. Sachs, "Two Lunar Texts of the Achaemenid Period from Babylon, Centaurus, 14 (1969), 1-22). It provides, in particular, calculated longitudes of the Sun and the Moon conjunctions for 38 assumed solar eclipses from -474 to -456. In longitudes the following designations of zodiac signs are used: ḫun (Aries), mul 2 (Taurus), maš (Gemini), alla x (= kušu 2 ) (Cancer), A (Leo), absin 0 (= ki) (Virgo), rin 2 (Libra), gir 2 (Scorpio), pa (Sagittarius), maš 2 (Capricorn), gu (Aquarius), zib (Pisces). All of them are associated with constellations "in the path of the moon" in MUL.APIN. J. Britton, however, showed that this text indeed was written much later, and could not have been composed before the end of the fifth century BC (after -401). He also analyzed the con- tents of the Diaries and concluded that the uniform zodiac was introduced between -408 and -397 not earlier, see Britton, op. cit. (Note 22), p. 645f. This discovery shifts the introduction of mathematical zodiac in Mesopotamian astronomy by about half a century.
- Late Babylonian Astronomical and Related Texts copied by T.G. Pinches and J.N. Strassmaier. Prepared for publ. by A.J. Sachs (Providence: Brown Univ. Press, 1955). Transliteration and translation of the text: MUL 2 .BABBAR dele-bat GU 4 .UD GENNA AN / ḪUN MUL 2 .MUL 2 MAŠ.MAŠ ALLA A / ABSIN RIN 2 GIR 2 .TAB PA MAŠ 2 / GU zib me "Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Saturn, Mars, / Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, / Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, / Aquarius, Pisces."
- For a publication of the text see A. Ungnad, "Besprechungskunst und Astrologie in Babylonien," Archiv für Orientforschung, 14 (1941-44), 251-84; see also its investigation in Reiner, op. cit. (Note 4), pp. 108-10. For a new edition and interpretation of the text see JoAnn Scurlock, "Sorcery in the Stars: STT 300, BRM 4.19-20 and the Mandaic Book of the Zodiac," Archiv für Orientforschung, 51 (2005-6), 125-146. For an electronic version of BRM 4.20 see also <http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/cams/gkab/P296512> and literature mentioned there.
- Researchers differ on this point: according to A. Ungnad, these are the names of constella- tions; according to JoAnn Scurlock, the designations of zodiac signs; see Ungnad, op. cit. (Note 40), pp. 256-8; Scurlock, op. cit. (Note 40), p. 127 et al.
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kurtik, G. E.
- Affiliations
- Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia
- Venue
- Journal for the History of Astronomy
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2021-02
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 53-66
- ISSN
- 0021-8286 (ISSN-L)
- 1753-8556
- OpenAlex
- W3132153289
- Cited by
- 6
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 1 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 0.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal for the History of Astronomy (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Historical Astronomy and Related Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Ancient Near East History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Historical, Religious, and Philosophical Studies
- Keywords
- Mesopotamian astronomy, MUL.APIN, zodiacal constellations, normal stars, astronomical diaries, astrology, magic, cuneiform tablets, Babylonian astronomy, Greek astronomy, history of astronomy
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