The DOI matches its Crossref record; 55 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 32 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China
Open accessAbstract
The relationship between three types of child maltreatment, including physical abuse, emotional abuse and neglect, and childhood behavior problems in Mainland China, has not been systematically examined. This meta-analysis reviewed findings from 42 studies conducted in 98,749 children in Mainland China and analyzed the pooled effect sizes of the associations between child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems, heterogeneity in study findings, and publication bias. In addition, this study explored cross-study similarities/differences by comparing the pooled estimates with findings from five existing meta-analyses. Equivalent small-to-moderate effect sizes emerged in the relationships between the three types of maltreatment and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors, except that emotional abuse related more to internalizing than externalizing behaviors. Considerable heterogeneity exists among the 42 studies. Weak evidence suggests that child gender and reporter of emotional abuse may moderate the strengths of the relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems. No indication of publication bias emerged. Cross-study comparisons show that the pooled effect sizes in this meta-analysis are about equal to those reported in the five meta-analyses conducted in child and adult populations across the world. Findings urge relevant agencies in Mainland China to build an effective child protection system to prevent child maltreatment.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This meta-analysis of 42 studies in 98,749 children in Mainland China found small-to-moderate associations between physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect and childhood externalizing/internalizing behavior problems. Emotional abuse was more strongly related to internalizing than externalizing behaviors, and pooled estimates were comparable to five existing global meta-analyses.
Key findings
- Physical abuse was associated with externalizing behaviors (Hedges’s g = .503, 95% CI [0.358, 0.649]) and internalizing behaviors (g = .493, 95% CI [0.469, 0.518]).
- Emotional abuse was associated with externalizing (g = .348, 95% CI [0.150, 0.547]) and internalizing behaviors (g = .592, 95% CI [0.489, 0.695]); the internalizing association was larger than the externalizing association (Q = 5.961, p = .015).
- Neglect was associated with externalizing (g = .266, 95% CI [0.087, 0.444]) and internalizing behaviors (g = .460, 95% CI [0.340, 0.580]); these did not differ significantly.
- Considerable heterogeneity was present (majority of I² values > 75%, p < .001); no publication bias was indicated, and cross-study comparison showed pooled estimates about equal to five existing meta-analyses.
Methods
- Systematic search of two Chinese databases and three English databases in May 2016 plus reference lists; included 42 studies (46 articles) of children under 18 from Mainland China, total N = 98,749, average mean age 12.13 years, average 48.7% girls.
- Random-effects meta-analyses were run separately by maltreatment type and behavior problem level; effect sizes were calculated as Hedges’s g from correlations, odds ratios, means/SDs, or frequencies/proportions; heterogeneity was assessed with I² and Q, moderators via meta-regression/Q statistics, and publication bias via fail-safe N, funnel plot, and trim-and-fill.
- Cross-study comparison used five existing meta-analyses identified through a Scopus search from 2012 onward, with pooled estimates converted to Cohen’s d for comparability.
Limitations
- The paper states that definitions and measures of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect varied considerably across the 42 studies, including differences in whether mild physical abuse was included and which neglect domains were assessed.
- The paper states that participants were relatively homogeneous (students attending regular schools in Han-populated regions), most studies were cross-sectional (only two longitudinal), so causality cannot be inferred; moderator analyses for child gender, reporter, and abuser were limited to few studies, and effect sizes were unadjusted.
- Evident from the text: some pooled estimates had wide confidence intervals, and the authors describe the moderator evidence as weak.
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Claims the paper makes
54 Own result · 21 Not checked yet · 11 Own interpretation · 6 Own method · 4 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Considerable heterogeneity exists among the 42 studies.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All studies that examined the relationship between child maltreatment without differentiating its subtypes reported increased externalizing (Hedges’s g = .713, 95% CI [0.436, 1.989]) and internalizing (Hedges’s g = .626, 95% CI [0.260,0.902]) behaviors about equally (Figure 5 and Table 3).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Mixed Child Maltreatment
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All studies that examined the relationship between child maltreatment without differentiating its subtypes reported increased externalizing (Hedges’s g = .713, 95% CI [0.436, 1.989]) and internalizing (Hedges’s g = .626, 95% CI [0.260,0.902]) behaviors about equally (Figure 5 and Table 3).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Mixed Child Maltreatment
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All studies on emotional abuse and internalizing behaviors reported positive relationships and the pooled estimate was 0.592 (95% CI [0.489, 0.695]).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Emotional Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Specifically, the associations of emotional abuse with Level-2 behavior problems, including depression, self-injury behavior, and somatic complaints, were higher than that of emotional abuse with aggression (p values < .05; see Figure 3 and Table 3).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Emotional Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect sizes of the relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems did not significantly differ between high and low study quality subgroups.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Sensitivity Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 4, the point estimates (Hedges’s g) in the present meta-analysis were slightly higher than those (Cohen’s d) in the five meta-analyses conducted in child or both child and adult populations across the world.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Cross-Study Comparison
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These were not significantly different.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Neglect
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“except that emotional abuse related more to internalizing than externalizing behaviors.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 98,749- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results remained unchanged after adding the effect sizes of the longitudinal relationships.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Sensitivity Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 20
- Probably not a substantial claim. 15
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All the 95% CIs were overlapped, indicating there were not significant differences in the relationships between physical abuse and Level-1 or Level-2 behavior problems (see Figure 2 and Table 3).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Physical Abuse
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite some exceptions, there was substantial heterogeneity among most of the studies evidenced by the majority of I2 values >75% (p values < .001, Table 3).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Heterogeneity
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Neglect was also associated with all Level-2 behavior problems about equally because all 95% CI overlapped (see Figure 4 and Table 3).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Neglect
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Child gender and reporter of child maltreatment were identified as potential moderators that may contribute to the heterogeneity.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Heterogeneity
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were conducted among 98,749 children with an average mean age of 12.13 years and an average of 48.7% girls in all the seven regions of Mainland China.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Study Characteristics
plainn = 98,749- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Equivalent small-to-moderate effect sizes emerged in the relationships between the three types of maltreatment and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 98,749- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were conducted among 98,749 children with an average mean age of 12.13 years and an average of 48.7% girls in all the seven regions of Mainland China.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Study Characteristics
plainn = 98,749- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fail-safe N numbers were very large to reduce the mean effect size below the level of significance for the relationship between physical abuse and externalizing (N = 845) or internalizing behaviors (N = 3,500), between emotional abuse and externalizing (N = 582) or internalizing behaviors (N = 8,190), and between neglect and externalizing (N = 171) or internalizing behaviors (N = 2,366).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Publication Bias
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present meta-analysis found that all three types of child maltreatment related to a broad spectrum of childhood behavior problems, including externalizing and internalizing behaviors in Mainland China.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · boosted
“Findings showed child maltreatment was undoubtedly related to a broad spectrum of childhood behavior problems among Chinese children.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Pooled Estimates of Effect size
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.
- Rests on an assumption: The 42 included studies are representative enough of children in Mainland China for the pooled associations to generalize to Chinese children.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · boosted
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Emotional abuse was measured by public humiliation (Olson et al., 2011), verbal abuse (X. Liu et al., 2008), or multiple behaviors including both and threatening to hit (e.g., B. Liu, Wei, Xing, & Wang, 2012; Pan, 2010; Tao et al., 2006).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Olson et al., 2011
- Not checked yetcites X. Liu et al., 2008
- Not checked yetcites B. Liu, Wei, Xing, & Wang, 2012
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the present meta-analysis found that some studies defined physical abuse using multiple specific parental violent behaviors such as hitting, beating, and kicking (e.g., Kwok et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2011), whereas others simply referred to “physical punishment” or “being hit” (Hesketh et al., 2011; X. Liu, Sun, & Yang, 2008).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kwok et al., 2013
- Not checked yetcites Tang et al., 2011
- Not checked yetcites Hesketh et al., 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The majority of studies on neglect applied the Child Psychological Abuse and Neglect Scale developed by Chinese researchers based on the CTQ, the CTSPC, and the Chinese sociocultural context and assessed physical, psychological, and educational neglect (A. Liu & Nian, 2012; Yang, 2012), whereas others applied the CTQ and only measured psychological and physical neglect.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites A. Liu & Nian, 2012
- Not checked yetcites Yang, 2012
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The associations of different types of child maltreatment and different types/subtypes of childhood behavior problems were about equivalent.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All studies included in the present meta-analysis measured behavior problems using subjective questionnaires rather than diagnostic standards, whereas the other meta-analyses included studies using diagnostic behavior problems as outcomes.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Cross-Study Comparison
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, the 95% CI overlapped across all meta-analyses, indicating that the observed differences were not significant.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Cross-Study Comparison
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Effect sizes from the present meta-analysis and the five comparison meta-analyses are comparable enough for direct cross-study comparison.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test the uncertainty in the study findings.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Method > Sensitivity analysis.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Two raters screened the search results independently based on the eligibility criteria. Disagreements were resolved by consensus to reduce bias and errors (Buscemi, Hartling, Vandermeer, Tjosvold, & Klassen, 2006).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Method > Data Extraction and Coding
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buscemi, Hartling, Vandermeer, Tjosvold, & Klassen, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“An asymmetrical funnel plot might arise if larger studies with nonsignificant results or with an effect size in the nonhypothesized direction are preferentially published, while smaller studies with such findings are less likely to be published (Sterne & Egger, 2001).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Method > Publication bias.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sterne & Egger, 2001
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The same two raters appraised the quality of each study using the modified Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-sectional Studies (National Institute of Health, 2014) based on each study’s objective(s), sampling description, measurement, and analysis.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Method > Quality Assessment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites National Institute of Health, 2014
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Disagreements in the assessment between the raters were resolved by consensus.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Method > Quality Assessment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moderator analysis showed that child gender and reporter of child maltreatment may contribute to the heterogeneity among study findings, but the evidence is still weak.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Investigation of child maltreatment–related childhood behavior problems is informative for prevention of behavior problems at an earlier life stage.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Articles from the same study were identified based on the author names, study location, and sample characteristics and were coded as one study if they focused on different maltreatment or behavior problems.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Study Selection
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pooled estimates suggest that different types of child maltreatment relate to different types of behavior problems approximately equally, with small-to-moderate effect sizes, except that emotional abuse related more to internalizing than externalizing behaviors.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion
hedgedcorrelationaln = 98,749 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Publication bias was estimated using three methods such as the classic fail-safe N, funnel plot, and the trim-and-fill method.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Method > Publication bias.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Based on the modest associations of physical and emotional abuse with mental health problems in China, Fang et al. (2015) estimated that the economic cost of physical and emotional abuse was 0.47% and 0.84% of the gross domestic product (i.e., about US$27 and US$50 billion) in 2010, respectively.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Pooled Estimates of Effect size
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fang et al. (2015)
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Also, childhood externalizing and internalizing behaviors are major risk factors for many social, societal, and health outcomes such as adulthood crime, violence, and mental disorders (for meta-analyses, see Leschied et al., 2008; Reef et al., 2011).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Pooled Estimates of Effect size
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Leschied et al., 2008
- Not checked yetcites Reef et al., 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Some studies (e.g., Ge et al., 2013; Tao et al., 2006; Yu et al., 2013; W. Zhang et al., 2013) may have excluded physical abuse in its mild form that are conventionally accepted as ordinary discipline but still related to behavior problems (Gershoff, 2002).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gershoff, 2002
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cross-study comparisons provided initial evidence of the equal strength of the relationship between child maltreatment and behavior problems across populations and countries.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“In addition, associations between child maltreatment and behavior problems in Mainland Chinese children were equal to the estimates in some existing meta-analyses of studies of child and adult populations across the world.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Cross-Study Comparison
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Effect sizes from the present meta-analysis and the five comparison meta-analyses are comparable enough for direct cross-study comparison.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hence, no causal relationship can be inferred, and the possibility that behavior problems increase the risk of child maltreatment should not be ruled out.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Limitations
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“It is possible that the relationship can change after adjusting for confounding variables, especially co-occurring maltreatment, family dysfunction, and parental behavioral and mental health (Norman et al., 2012).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Norman et al., 2012
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
The relationship between three types of child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems in Mainland China had not been systematically examined before this meta-analysis.
“The relationship between three types of child maltreatment, including physical abuse, emotional abuse and neglect, and childhood behavior problems in Mainland China, has not been systematically examined.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Existing reviews focused on studies conducted in child and adult populations together and failed to differentiate between them.
“First, they focused on studies conducted in child and adult populations together and failed to differentiate between them.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Whether different types of child maltreatment relate to different behavior problems equally or differently was still unclear.
“Second, whether different types of child maltreatment relate to different behavior problems equally or differently is still unclear.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many possible factors that could contribute to heterogeneity in relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems had not been analyzed in existing meta-analyses.
“Third, many possible factors that could contribute to the heterogeneity in relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems have not been analyzed in the existing meta-analyses.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Whether child or parental gender moderates the average effect size of the association of child maltreatment and behavior problems was unclear.
“however, whether child or parental gender moderates the average effect size of the association of child maltreatment and behavior problems is unclear.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-study similarities and differences in the pooled estimates of the associations between child maltreatment and behavior problems among existing meta-analyses had not been analyzed.
“Lastly, the cross-study similarities and differences in the pooled estimates of the associations between child maltreatment and behavior problems among existing meta-analyses have not been analyzed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.
“Nine studies used the CTSPC, 6 used the CTQ , 5 used self-developed instruments, and the remaining 22 studies used other tools to assess child maltreatment.”
“First, considerable variations exist in how researchers defined and measured physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect across the 42 studies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The child maltreatment assessed in the included studies was perpetrated by parents, guardians, or other family members in the household.
“Findings from the 42 studies conducted among 98,749 Chinese children supported the hypothesis that physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect by parents, guardians, and other family members in the household are undoubtedly associated with a broad spectrum of behavior problems in childhood.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 42 included studies are representative enough of children in Mainland China for the pooled associations to generalize to Chinese children.
“Second, child participants in the 42 studies were diverse in gender, age, and geographic region. However, they were relatively homogenous considering that all were students attending regular schools in the regions where Han Chinese people populate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Effect sizes from the present meta-analysis and the five comparison meta-analyses are comparable enough for direct cross-study comparison.
“The point estimates of the pooled effect size in the present study were consistently and slightly larger than the estimates in the other five meta-analyses, especially regarding physical and emotional abuse.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
“externalizing (Hedges’s g = .713, 95% CI [0.436, 1.989])”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Mixed Child Maltreatment
Reported 0.713 · recomputed 1.2125
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Study Characteristics
“Nine studies collected child maltreatment data reported by parents, while the remaining studies used child-report data.”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Study Characteristics
“Eight studies collected maltreatment information from parents, while the remaining used child-report data.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Of the remaining 153 articles, 105 were further excluded upon full-text screening based on the eligibility criteria. One additional eligible article was identified from the reference list of a retrieved article. This process resulted in 46 articles from 42 studies that met the eligibility criteria (Figure 1).”
§ Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China > Results > Study Selection
Reported 46 · recomputed 48
Citations
Cites
Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses
Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557 · Cited by 63,139
Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00455.x · Cited by 14,099
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The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results.
Rosenthal, R. (1979) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638 · Cited by 9,068 · cited 1×
“A filedrawer effect, selective publication bias, exists when the failsafe N is less than 5 times the number of published studies plus 10 (Rosenthal, 1979).”
BackgroundFunnel plots for detecting bias in meta-analysis
Sterne, J. A. C., & Egger, M. (2001) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(01)00377-8 · Cited by 3,779
Norman, R. E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., & Vos, T. (2012) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001349 · Cited by 3,387
Random-effects model for meta-analysis of clinical trials: An update
DerSimonian, R., & Kacker, R. (2007) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2006.04.004 · Cited by 2,374
Gershoff, E. T. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539 · Cited by 2,165
Harsh parenting in relation to child emotion regulation and aggression
Chang, L., Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & McBride-Chang, C. (2003) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.4.598 · Cited by 898
Lindert, J., Ehrenstein, O. S. V., Grashow, R. G., Gal, G., Brähler, E., & Weisskopf, M. G. (2013) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s00038-013-0519-5 · Cited by 637
Research works printed but not linked: 30
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- *Cheng P., 2010, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 18, 250
- *Du A., 2014, Sichuan Journal of Mental Health, 27, 10
- *Ge X., 2013, Chinese Journal of Epidemiology, 34, 5
- Gershoff E. T, 2010, Law & Contemporary Problems, 73, 31
- *Li P. (2013). Relational aggression, self-supporting personality, and psychological abuse and neglect (Master’s thesis). Qufu Normal University, Shandong, China.
- *Li Y., 2012, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 813
- *Liu A., 2012, Journal of Psychological Science, 35, 911
- *Liu B., 2012, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 842
- *Liu J., 2016, Chinese Journal of School Health, 37, 567
- *Luo A., 2013, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 236
- *Ma M., 2011, Chinese Journal of Epidemiology, 32, 130
- *Pan C. (2010). The revision of Child Psychological Maltreatment Scale and the epidemiological investigation of child psychological maltreatment (PhD dissertation). Central South University, Hunan, China.
- *Su J., 2015, Chinese Journal of School Health, 36, 1326
- *Tan J. (2014). The correlation study of child abuse and children’s emotional and behavioral problems in an elementary school of Changsha (Master’s thesis). Central South University, Hunan, China.
- *Tao F., 2006, Chinese Journal of Pediatrics, 44, 688
- United Nations Children’s Fund, 2012, Measuring and monitoring child protection systems: Proposed core indicators for the East Asia and Pacific Region
- *Wan Y. (2015). The role of pain processing in the relationship between childhood physical abuse and non-suicidal self-injury behaviors among middle school students (PhD dissertation). Anhui Medical University, Anhui, China.
- World Health Organization, 2006, Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence
- *Wu Y., 2011, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 19, 502, 494
- *Xiao Y., 2008, Chinese Journal of School Health, 24, 1028
- *Xu T. (2015). The research about parents’ harsh discipline and children’s temperament and behavior problems (Master’s dissertation). Shanxi University, Shanxi, China.
- *Yang M., 2012, Chinese Journal of Special Education, 12, 64
- *Yu T., 2013, Child Journal of School Doctor, 27, 161
- *Zhang L., 2008, Medicine and Society, 21, 52
- *Zhang W., 2013, Chinese Journal of Public Health, 29, 1165
- *Zhang Z., 2003, Chinese Journal of Mental Health, 17, 852
- *Zhu M., 2013, Chinese Journal of Special Education, 10, 80
- *Zhu M., 2010, Paper presented at the 2010 International Conference on Psychology Psychological Sciences and Computer Science (PPSCS)
- *Zou F., 2012, Chinese Journal of School Health, 33, 1077
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–113 of 113
Discipline Patterns and Child Externalizing Problems in Low-Income Unmarried Families
Zhang, Y., Allbright-Campos, M., Chang, Y., & Yoon, S. (2026) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-026-01080-7
Nguyen, T. N. H., Macias, A., Elbe, C. I., Elzie, X., Hong, K., Tabibian, D. R., Straub, D., Kobulsky, J. M., Dubowitz, H., & Villodas, M. T. (2026) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/10775595261452214
Help-Seeking Behavior of Adults with Adverse Childhood Experiences in Rural China
Chen, W., Zhang, Y., & Chen, J. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16050818
Criteria for measuring adverse childhood experiences: prospects for scale development and validation
Roerich, E. S., Gorbunova, A. P., Рукавишников, Г. В., & Mazo, G. E. (2026) · V M BEKHTEREV REVIEW OF PSYCHIATRY AND MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.31363/2313-7053-2026-2-1152
Xiang, S., Wesarg, C., Chen, M. F., Li, Y., Gao, Q., Wang, W., & Lin, D. (2026) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.70171
Liz, M., & Vásquez‐Echeverría, A. (2026) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-026-10414-2
Lin, P. K. F., Ng, F. Z. L., & Chua, A. Y. W. (2026) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2026.109199
Wang, L. (2026) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-026-00943-x
Duran, B., Öznaneci, M., Çiftçi, H. A., & Veziroğlu-Çelik, M. (2026) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.70162
Recognizing emotional neglect in early childhood settings: A mixed-methods study
Pretsch, J., Gelhausen, A., & Gerstenberg, F. X. R. (2026) · Journal of Family Trauma Child Custody & Child Development · doi:10.1080/26904586.2026.2730400
Gong, H., Zhou, Q., Chen, M., Zhang, J., & Li, Z. (2026) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-026-01192-5
Yu, Q., Li, Y., Wang, L., Guo, J., & Wang, W. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1976531
Network Analysis of Childhood Family Experiences and Internet Gaming Disorder in Chinese Adolescents
Li, S., Wang, C., & Cui, L. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101406
Metadata
- Authors
- Cui, N., & Liu, J.
- Affiliations
- Shandong University (CN)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cui, Naixue
- Venue
- Trauma, Violence, & Abuse
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-02-13
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 206-224
- ISSN
- 1524-8380 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-8324
- PMC
- PMC10064579
- OpenAlex
- W2788691505
- Cited by
- 113
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 0.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trauma Violence & Abuse (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Office of Nursing Research at University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- child abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, child neglect, child behavior problems, externalizing problems, internalizing problems, child protection, mainland China, gender differences
- MeSH terms
- Emotional Abuse, Adolescent, Behavioral Symptoms, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior Disorders, China, Female, Humans, Male
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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