The DOI matches its Crossref record; 26 of the 26 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 46 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Mind the implementation gap? Police reform and local policing in the Netherlands and Scotland
Open accessAbstract
In 2013 the governments of the Netherlands and Scotland established national police forces, replacing a tradition of largely autonomous regional police organizations. In both jurisdictions, these radical reforms have raised concerns about the consequences of these national police structures for local policing and for relationships with local communities and local government. Drawing on documentary sources and interview material from each jurisdiction and informed by insights from the policy implementation literature, the key question addressed in this article is how has the legislation that created the new national police forces been put into effect at a local level? Focusing on the impact on the governance, organization and delivery of local policing, the article reveals how the implementation in both jurisdictions involves interpretation and discretion by multiple actors so that gaps are emerging between the national ‘policy promises’ set out in the legislation and the ‘policy products’ experienced in local contexts.
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“The interview data indicates, however, that the implementation of police reform is creating a more differentiated picture of local governance and accountability than could be expected after reading the proposals of the reform.”
§ Mind the implementation gap? > The Netherlands
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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“In both countries the public and political debate triggered by the decision to create a national police force was also quite similar, focusing on the distribution of responsibilities between Government ministers and the Chief Constable, and the potentially negative consequences that a national police force might have for local policing.”
§ Mind the implementation gap? > Contexts of reform
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“few local councillors appear to be as optimistic.”
§ Mind the implementation gap? > Scotland
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“Several highlighted examples of how within the first few months of the establishment of Police Scotland, the relative powerlessness of local authorities had become apparent.”
§ Mind the implementation gap? > Scotland
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“In sum, several of the mayors interviewed fear that they will no longer be able to exercise their authority over the local police.”
§ Mind the implementation gap? > The Netherlands
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§ Mind the implementation gap? > Scotland
“In three areas the boundaries of these divisions are aligned with those of a single local authority”
§ Mind the implementation gap? > Scotland
“For the five local authorities who have boundaries co-terminous with the police divisions, there is a direct link with a divisional commander of the rank of Chief Superintendent.”
Citations
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Cited by
The Abstract Police: A conceptual exploration of unintended changes of police organisations
Terpstra, J., Fyfe, N. R., & Salet, R. (2019) · The Police Journal Theory Practice and Principles · doi:10.1177/0032258x18817999 · Cited by 117
Self-citationMacQueen, S., & Bradford, B. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-016-9278-7 · Cited by 68
“This process represents the biggest change to Scottish policing since the 19th Century (Terpstra and Fyfe 2015), leading to dramatic overhauling of organisational structures and management, and arrangements for governance and accountability.”
BackgroundPolice reform, austerity and ‘cop culture’: time to change the record?
Caveney, N., Scott, P., Williams, S., & Howe-Walsh, L. (2019) · Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy · doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1691549 · Cited by 33
“The greater use of inter-force collaborative work, outsourcing arrangements and business partnerships, including with private sector organisations, reflect pressures on police forces to operate more efficiently (Smith 2012, White 2014, Terpstra and Fyfe 2015).”
BackgroundFyfe, N. R., Anderson, S., Bland, N., et al. (2018) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pay052 · Cited by 32
Self-citationTerpstra, J., & Fyfe, N. R. (2019) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/1461355719842310 · Cited by 30
“, 2017) and that local authorities found that their position in the local governance and accountability of the police had become much weaker (COSLA, 2014; Terpstra and Fyfe, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnderstanding the reconstruction of police professionalism in the UK
Martin, D. (2021) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2021.1999447 · Cited by 30
Police and Community in Twentieth-century Scotland: The Uses of Social History
Davidson, N., Fleming, L., Jackson, L., et al. (2015) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azv097 · Cited by 21
European police recruits’ views on ideal personal characteristics of a police officer
Inzunza, M., & Wikström, C. (2019) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1685514 · Cited by 21
“This was expected, among other things, to provide higher efficiency and financial savings, but there were concerns, particularly that closeness to local communities and citizens would be impaired (Terpstra and Fyfe 2015).”
BackgroundDoes police size matter? A review of the evidence regarding restructuring police organisations
Mendel, J., Fyfe, N. R., & den Heyer, G. (2016) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2015.1135399 · Cited by 21
“The recent (2013) merger of regional police forces to create national police organisations in the Netherlands and in Scotland offers a valuable opportunity for such research (see Terpstra & Fyfe, 2014; Terpstra & Fyfe, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe challenges of harmonising anti-doping policy implementation
Read, D., Skinner, J. L., III, Smith, A. C. T., et al. (2023) · Sport Management Review · doi:10.1080/14413523.2023.2288713 · Cited by 17
“…from the theoretical proposition that transnational regimes often struggle with translating rigid global policy into positive local outcomes (Gunn, 1978), our results support work on the policy-implementation gap in other policy sectors (e.g., Galvani, 2018; Ridde, 2008; Terpstra & Fyfe, 2015).”
ResultThe contested community police officer: An ongoing conflict between different institutional logics
Terpstra, J., & Salet, R. (2019) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/1461355719889465 · Cited by 17
“They show that this ‘implementation gap’ (Hill and Hupe, 2009; Terpstra and Fyfe, 2015) should not be seen as only a (temporary) consequence of some technical factors and circumstances, such as a lack of resources, skills or professional expertise.”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Silent Militarization: Explaining the Logic of Military Members' Appointment As Police Chiefs
Zarkin, J. (2023) · Comparative Politics · doi:10.5129/001041523x16726700420784 · Cited by 16
Bridging the Gap? Police Volunteering and Community Policing in Scotland
Dickson, G. (2019) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/paz070 · Cited by 16
“Although the 2012 reforms are not exclusively responsible for these changes (Hughes and Rowe, 2007), the shift away from these traditional features associated with community policing (Terpstra and Fyfe, 2015) may be remedied through meaningful deployment of specials.”
BackgroundTerpstra, J. (2018) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pay037 · Cited by 19
Self-citationPolice reform as institutional change: Symbols and dilemmas
Terpstra, J. (2019) · International journal of law, crime and justice · doi:10.1016/j.ijlcj.2019.100359 · Cited by 14
Self-citationContinuity and change in Scandinavian police reforms
Holmberg, L. (2019) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/1461355719889461 · Cited by 14
“Some of these, for example, the Danish (Balvig and Holmberg, 2013a), Dutch (Terpstra and Fyfe, 2015), Finnish (Vuorensyrjä, 2018) and Scottish reforms (Fyfe and Scott, 2013) have been evaluated by independent researchers.”
BackgroundPolice Leadership in Times of Transition
Moggré, M., den Boer, M., & Fyfe, N. R. (2017) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pax041 · Cited by 11
“Although a centralisation agenda in both Scotland and the Netherlands was present prior to 2010, windows of opportunity ultimately facilitated acceleration of the respective transition processes (Terpstra & Fyfe, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBjörk, M. (2018) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pay069 · Cited by 10
Community Policing: The Relevance of Social Contexts
van der Giessen, M., Brein, E., & Jacobs, G. (2017) · Advanced sciences and technologies for security applications · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53396-4_4 · Cited by 11
Treading the Front-Line: Tartanization and Police–Academic Partnerships
Martin, D., & Wooff, A. (2018) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pay065 · Cited by 8
Assessing police social media practices through a democratic policing lens
Ralph, L., & Robinson, P. (2023) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/14613557231169391 · Cited by 7
Rolandsson, B. (2016) · International Journal of Public Administration · doi:10.1080/01900692.2016.1162803 · Cited by 7
“This conclusion confirms findings that consensus between coproducing authorities should not be taken for granted (Bullock et al., 2012; Terpstra & Fyfe, 2015).”
BackgroundResultThe challenges of change: Exploring the dynamics of police reform in Scotland
Fyfe, N. R. (2019) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/1461355719889463 · Cited by 6
Self-citationGreene, J. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108278423.021 · Cited by 6
Deuchar, R., Søgaard, T. F., Holligan, C., et al. (2018) · Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention · doi:10.1080/14043858.2018.1448157 · Cited by 5
“In terms of police policies and approaches, as outlined in the Introduction, Scandinavia, including Denmark, has historically been considered and cited as comparable to the Scottish case (Terpstra & Fyfe, 2014).”
MethodMalik, A. (2022) · Scottish Affairs · doi:10.3366/scot.2022.0417 · Cited by 5
Policing child abuse: challenges and opportunities for specialist units
Martin, D., Kelly, L., Jackson, S., & Byszko, S. (2017) · Journal of Criminological Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1108/jcrpp-01-2017-0009 · Cited by 5
“Returning to the present day, in Scotland, the National Child Abuse Investigation Unit (NCAIU) was established in early 2015 as a specialist unit for dealing with child abuse and exploitation cases.”
BackgroundInfluentialLeaving ‘home?’ Belonging, break-up and becoming in the police family
Atkinson, C., & Murray, K. (2020) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azaa066 · Cited by 4
Beyond rhetoric: Emplotting the life course of criminal justice narratives
O’Connell, L., & Healy, D. (2022) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/14624745221138966 · Cited by 4
“…employing multi-level designs in narrative studies to identify and explain any gaps between discourse, policy and practice (see McNeill et al. 2009; Terpstra and Fyfe, 2015), to capture the role of agency, agonistic voices, vertical in fl uences (such as the EU and ECtHR), and to recognise…”
BackgroundEvaluations of Police Reforms: Utility or Futility?
Holmberg, L. (2018) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pay023 · Cited by 4
Malik, A. (2018) · Scottish Affairs · doi:10.3366/scot.2018.0257 · Cited by 4
Harris, S. C., & Irazábal, C. (2018) · doi:10.2307/j.ctt21pxmfs.12 · Cited by 4
Hamilton‐Smith, N., McBride, M., & Atkinson, C. (2019) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1696800 · Cited by 4
“As a result, FoCUS become associated in the minds of many with a heavy-handed imposition of ‘Strathclyde’ policing methods and tactics that usurped the diverse range of pre-existing Scottish policing traditions, styles and richly varying community contexts (see Terpstra and Fyfe 2015).”
BackgroundSpecial Issue on Police Reform: Introduction and Overview
Fyfe, N. R., & Terpstra, J. (2018) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/pay071 · Cited by 4
Self-citationRural Policing: Change and Continuity
Terpstra, J., Havinga, T., & Salet, R. (2023) · European Journal of Policing Studies · doi:10.5553/ejps/2034760x2022001007 · Cited by 3
Self-citationMousseau, V., Morelato, M., & Roux, C. P. (2025) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Forensic Science · doi:10.1002/wfs2.70010 · Cited by 2
4. Parliamentary Oversight of Intelligence Agencies: Lessons from Westminster
Bochel, H. M., & Defty, A. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.04 · Cited by 2
Police reform in Scotland: What can we learn from the experiences of front-line officers?
Hail, Y. (2019) · International Journal of Police Science & Management · doi:10.1177/1461355719882441 · Cited by 2
“With the exception of recent work published by Fyfe and Henry (2012), Terpstra and Fyfe (2015), Moggré et al. (2018) and Terpstra and Fyfe (2014), the majority of current police reform literature has tended to examine the more operational or micro-level changes related to police practice, such as…”
ResultGreer, A., Butler, A., Zakimi, N., & Wood, B. (2023) · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1080/09687637.2023.2260552 · Cited by 2
“When drug policy changes are not followed with police training, managerial improvements, and supervision, they are unlikely to achieve the intended outcomes (Beletsky et al., 2005; Terpstra & Fyfe, 2015).”
Abstract Police Organisations: Distantiation, Decontextualisation and Digitalisation
Terpstra, J., Salet, R., & Fyfe, N. R. (2022) · Palgrave's critical policing studies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83685-6_2 · Cited by 5
Self-citationEuropéanisation, désengagement ou déseuropéanisation ?
Piquet, A. (2021) · Politique européenne · doi:10.3917/poeu.073.0058 · Cited by 1
Swedish Police Reform and the Emergence of New Police Subjectivities
Rolandsson, B. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003146681-4 · Cited by 1
1. Perspectives on Small State Security in the Scottish Independence Debate
Kaarbo, J., & Kenealy, D. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.01 · Cited by 1
Politie in tweevoud: centraal en decentraal
Terpstra, J., & van Stokkom, B. A. M. (2015) · Justitiële verkenningen · doi:10.5553/jv/016758502015041002004 · Cited by 1
Self-citationThe dynamics of police legitimacy and social media in Scotland
Ralph, L. (2020) · Edinburgh Napier Research Repository (Edinburgh Napier University) · doi:10.17869/enu.2020.2701783 · Cited by 1
Abstract policing, Covid-19 and the ‘rural idyll’ in Scotland
Buchan, J., Horgan, S., Wooff, A., & Tatnell, A. (2025) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2025.2481117 · Cited by 1
“Much of the criticism of the 2013 nationalisation of Scottish policing has centred on its effects on police-community relations (Terpstra and Fyfe 2015) and the perceived disconnection of Police Scotland from local communities, including by replacing formal mechanisms of local authority governance…”
InfluentialScottish police force mergers and amalgamations
Matters, S. J. (2016)
Verhalen van plattelandspolitie – constructie van een beroepsidentiteit onder druk
Terpstra, J. (2016) · Tijdschrift voor Veiligheid · doi:10.5553/tvv/187279482016015203005
Self-citation5. Scotland and the Politics of Intelligence Accountability
Atkinson, C., Brooke, N., & Harris, B. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.05
Concluding Remarks: The Narrative of Security and Pathways of Transition
Balzacq, T. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.09
7. Press Scrutiny and the Proposals for Security and Intelligence in an Independent Scotland
O’Neill, E. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.07
6. ‘Hardly a Moment’s Discussion’? Intelligence and the Scottish Referendum
Hardie, S. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.06
Neal, A. W. (2017) · Open reports series · doi:10.11647/obp.0078.10
Budavári, Á. (2022) · Belügyi Szemle · doi:10.38146/bsz.2022.5.12
van Dijk, A., Hoogewoning, F., & Punch, M. (2015) · Policy Press eBooks · doi:10.51952/9781447326939.bm002
O’Reilly, C. (2024) · Policy Press eBooks · doi:10.51952/9781447368120.bm001
Wongsojudo, A. F., Ngarawula, B., & Sukardi, S. (2024) · KnE Social Sciences · doi:10.18502/kss.v9i27.17112
“Howlett [1], Terpstra and Fyfe [2] emphasize the concept of policy implementation as a process that determines policy outcomes, a notion supported by Paudel [3], who states that policy implementation involves distributing policy objectives from higher authorities to beneficiaries or policy targets.”
BackgroundNegotiating hybrid governance in policing: the case of Sweden’s national gang exit programme
Stenström, A., & Heber, A. (2026) · Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy · doi:10.1080/10439463.2026.2645703
“In this respect, the research findings support the arguments set out by (Terpstra and Fyfe 2015, Terpstra 2020), namely that centralised visions often suffer from severe implementation issues.”
Organizing for Responsible Algorithmization
Donatz-Fest, I. (2026) · Information Polity · doi:10.1177/15701255261456427 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Terpstra, J., & Fyfe, N. R.
- Affiliations
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- University of Dundee (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Fyfe, Nicholas R
- Venue
- Criminology & Criminal Justice
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-02-19
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 527-544
- ISSN
- 1748-8958 (ISSN-L)
- 1748-8966
- OpenAlex
- W2058516169
- Cited by
- 66
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 19.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Criminology & Criminal Justice (publishedVersion)
- Discovery Research Portal (University of Dundee) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Open Access Institutional Repository at Robert Gordon University (Robert Gordon University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Public Administration › Public Policy and Administration Research
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- police reform, national police force, local police, policy implementation, implementation gap, local government, community relations, police governance, discretion, Netherlands, Scotland, comparative policing
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