The Buddhist Nationalism of Dai Jitao

In the paper

“Dai describes himself as suffering from psychasthenia (jingshen shuairuo 精神衰弱), the cause of which he traces to his licentious and unbridled lifestyle between about 1905 and 1919.”

What the sources say

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  cites [41]

In the paper

“As he is surrounded by the ring of white light, he reflects on his mother's Buddhism and his own lapsed practice, and comes to the realization that this Buddha-light represents his chance at salvation, a symbol that he should not die but continue to live.”

What the sources say

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  cites [37]

In the paper

“Part of the impetus for his journey was to visit his mother on her birthday, and in the narrative he recalls a story from before his birth when his grandfather's trip to repair their ancestral tombs in Huzhou coincided with his own conception back in Sichuan, both expressions of the responsibilities and blessings associated with filial conduct.”

What the sources say

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  cites [39]

In the paper

“Finally, Dai argues that to blindly follow Western thought is to underestimate the good qualities of the Chinese people, and dismisses the notion that the West might hold the key to national salvation.”

What the sources say

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  cites [40]

In the paper

“Every nation, he explains, shares a common bloodline (xuetong 血統), language, writing system, and customs, and each nationality (minzu 民族) has its own particular religion which has influenced its culture, education, and governance.”

In the paper

“Yet since religion can not be accepted uncritically, nor opposed, nor dismissed out of hand, the only course remaining is to work toward reforming it so that it might unify the Chinese people.”

In the paper

“He concludes that the salvation of the nation and the people must proceed from the reformation of Buddhism, and that Longchang Temple, being an important center for the Vinaya School and located near the capital, bears a special responsibility for this task.”

What the sources say

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  cites Dai, "Jinggao Longchangsi zhusengzhong shu"

In the paper

“that the religion in the borderland regions of Tibet, Xinjiang and Mongolia is both kept authentic to its traditions but also adapted to the times.”

In the paper

“In this short essay, Dai identifies religion as one of China's most pressing national problems.”

In the paper

“Though his spirits never fully recovered after his attempted suicide, afterward he is said to have turned to an earnest repentance of his past evil deeds”

What the sources say

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  cites [41]

In the paper

“Dai proceeds to outline the reforms he sees necessary for Buddhism in China, arguing that the state must move to protect the economic and social activities of religious organizations, regulate religion as a type of educational enterprise, require official permission for people to enter monastic life, and increase the educational level of monastics.”

In the paper

“It was not well-covered in the print media, and though Baohua was not very distant from the capital it was a far cry from the city streets where the Nationalists had staged their political rallies and mass campaigns in the past.”

In the paper

“Dai produced a voluminous oeuvre of Buddhist writings in the 1930s and 1940s, including short pieces on keeping the precepts, eulogies, gathas, remarks and commentaries.”

In the paper

“In 1934 Pilu Temple would invite Yuanying to lecture on the Scripture for Humane Kings.The lectures were published the following year with a short preface by Lin Sen 林森, then President of the Republic.”

In the paper

“He also argues that Buddhist institutions have always been supportive of the Chinese polity, and that Buddhist communities can act as a model of purity for the rest of society.”

In the paper

“A few months after the first nation-protecting Dharma assembly on Baohua mountain, Haichao yin published an open letter from Dai to the monks of Longchang Temple on Baohua.”

In the paper

“Although other influential lay and monastic Buddhists of this era promoted religious reform along lines similar to those advocated by Dai”

In the paper

“Foreign visitors as well were attracted by Baohua's fame.Reichelt noted the fame of the ordination platform on Baohua in 1928, and Prip-Møller observed ordination proceedings at Longchang Temple in the spring of 1930 and1931.”

What the sources say

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  cites Reichelt, Truth and Tradition in Chinese Buddhism
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  cites Prip-Møller, Chinese Buddhist Monasteries

In the paper

“It was during this second ceremony that Dai took the Dharma name Bukong 不空, the name of the putative translator of the second version of the Scripture for Humane Kings.”

In the paper

“The assembly was a 'public' event in the sense that it involved a large group of people and references to it were published in the Buddhist press, and yet its publicity was actually quite limited.”

In the paper

“Han was a well-known scholar of the Consciousness-Only school (weishi 唯識), and he and Zhu were founding members of the Three Times Study Group (sanshi xuehui 三時學會), a major lay Buddhist study association in Beijing.”

What the sources say

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  cites Yu Lingbo, Zhongguo jinxiandai Fojiao renwu zhi

In the paper

“The emergence of the Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra for Humane Kings Protecting Their Countries (Renwang huguo bore poluomiduo jing 仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經) in the fifth century CE, a text whose message closely corresponds with the political and religious concerns of the period, points toward the indigenous generation of sacred models to link religious and political powers in China.”

What the sources say

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  cites [15]

In the paper

“Yet the Chinese state continued to assert control over both the definition and regulation of religion, even if in practice it was only able to do in a limited manner.”

In the paper

“Dai Jitao is a relevant point of entry into this story because he was a highly prominent figure whose Buddhist practice and public persona were closely linked, and who advocated reforming Buddhism so that it might help revitalize the nation.”

In the paper

“Buddhist nationalism was initially described in the context of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where religious reformers such as Anagarika Dharmapāla (1864-1933) developed a 'Protestant Buddhism' established in resistance to religious and political power of British rule.”

What the sources say

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  cites [6]

In the paper

“A separate sphere of religion, for which the neologism zongjiao 宗教 was adopted, was now conceived as a domain separate from that of the state, which now claimed legitimacy not on the basis of a heavenly mandate but rather on the popular support of national citizens.”

What the sources say

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  cites [21]

In the paper

“Furthermore, I will argue that the story of Buddhist nationalism is not primarily or even substantially a story of religious actors influencing the construction of the nation, even though much of the rhetoric was produced along these lines.Its most significant contributions were directed toward the construction of a religious identity that drew upon and was influenced by nationalism and the nation”

In the paper

“Its ideal of the Dharma-king, for example, mirrors that of the sage-king from classical literature, and rituals associated with the scripture worked to confirm the power of the ruling monarch while cementing the position of the sangha as an essential part of the ritual apparatus of the rulership.”

What the sources say

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  cites [16]

In the paper

“The ancient models of Aśokā and the Scripture for Humane Kings had assumed a context where political and religious power operated within the same field, but as Buddhists of the late-Qing and early Republican periods quickly discovered, modern nation-states operated on very different terms than the imperial courts of dynastic history.”

In the paper

“The movement to convert temples into public schools (miaochan xingxue 廟產興學) initially called for popular and folk religious properties to be seized for use as public state-run schools, but many local officials understood it to include all religious institutions in its scope, and thus targeted Buddhist temples with destruction.”

What the sources say

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  cites [26]

In the paper

“As early as the fourth century CE the autonomy of the sangha had already become ammunition for political struggles, and the institution of the sangha had to be continually defended against the anticlericalism of a tradition where a celibate priesthood was not part of its cultural norms.”

What the sources say

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  cites [13]

In the paper

“When his ship stopped at Hankou he learned that the warlords were ready to recommence hostilities, and on the next leg of the journey his nervous distress caused him to become despondent.One night, evading his companions, he leapt into the river intending to commit suicide.”

What the sources say

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  cites [34]

In the paper

“The violence surrounding the rise and fall of the Taiping Kingdom 太平天囯 (1850-1864) had devastated the Buddhist infrastructure in its heartland, the Jiangnan 江南 region of the lower Yangtze river delta.”

In the paper

“By the time of Dai Jitao's birth in the late Qing 清 dynasty (1644-1912), however, the conditions of Buddhism and the rulership of China had both radically changed.”

What the sources say

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  cites [17]

In the paper

“Yet many other aspects of nationalism among Chinese Buddhists during this period remain to be explored, most critically the internal developments and discourses among Buddhists in China that made possible, inter alia, the type of patriotism described by Xue.”

In the paper

“Such a model that described mutually supportive political and religious powers would have been quite familiar to the Chinese gentry, who saw doctrine and ritual as essential parts of governance.”

In the paper

“This new religious identity also incorporated a nationalist ideology that linked religious authority and orthodoxy to the patrimony of a national culture.”

In the paper

“Yet as he floated in the water far from shore, he became aware of being surrounded by a halo of Buddha-light (foguang 佛光) and was prevented from slipping beneath the waves.Before long he is rescued from the river by a local fisherman and reunited with his traveling companions.”

What the sources say

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  cites [34]

In the paper

“In this piece written in 1926, Dai is not yet suggesting that China should turn to Buddhism for salvation, but one key element of his later Buddhist writings is already present: that of sickness and recovery.”

In the paper

“The long-standing status that had been negotiated for Buddhism in relation to the rulership was discarded; in the eyes of many influential figures, it now merely stood in the way of national development.”

In the paper

“Yang's work helped to attract many elites to Buddhist study, leading Liang Qichao 梁啟超 (1873-1929) to later remark that among reform-minded late-Qing scholars, including Kang Youwei 康有為 (1858-1927), Tan Sitong 譚嗣同 (1865-1898), Zhang Binglin 張炳麟 (1868-1936) and himself, there were few who had no connection to Buddhism.”

What the sources say

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  cites [20]

In the paper

“Examining published narratives of Dai's Buddhist practice, we can see that this persona came together over a period of several years in a process that was closely connected to Dai's other political, cultural, and social concerns.”

In the paper

“Xue Yu's 2005 study has brought to light how reformist and nationalist causes were mutually supportive in the mobilization of Chinese Buddhist monks to participate in the war with Japan between 1937 and1945.”

What the sources say

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  cites Xue Yu's 2005 study
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  cites [8]

In the paper

“Ashiwa and Wank have highlighted the importance of negotiation between multiple state and religious actors in this process, pointing out that each side has relied upon the other in an ongoing contest for power, control, and authenticity.”

What the sources say

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  cites Ashiwa and Wank
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  cites [23]

In the paper

“During a period of political and physical convalescence in Huzhou 湖州, Zhejiang province, Dai wrote an account explaining his aims in writing the article, and subsequently this has been used in place of the original as his account of the events.”

What the sources say

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  cites [36]

In the paper

“The image of a Buddha-light appears throughout the East Asian Buddhist canon, most notably in the Amitābha Sūtra (Amituo jing 阿彌陀經).”

What the sources say

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  cites [38]

In the paper

“there is a voluminous archive of his writings on Buddhist subjects, and much published material describing his engagement with Buddhism.”

What the sources say

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  cites [32]

In the paper

“I would argue that this is precisely what we find in China in the closing years of the Qing dynasty: the differentiation of religion from other aspects of society, but by no means the beginning of its decline or marginalization into a domain of private conscience.”

In the paper

“At the time, an ordination certificate from a temple on Baohua mountain was a source of prestige recognized nationwide, as it was well-known as a place of strict training, especially in the Vinaya Study Hall (xuejie tang 學戒堂) and Board Halls (bantang 板堂).”

What the sources say

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  cites [77]

In the paper

“Although the organizations behind both these events-Taixu's Buddhist association and Xiao Yaonan's Wuchang government-were only regional in scope, the content of the rituals themselves aspires to a scale that is national if not global.”

In the paper

“While its full role in the Buddhist reforms of modern China has yet to be explored, it seems to have had an important connection to the development of Buddhist nationalist thought.”

In the paper

“Yet the text around which these rituals revolved, the Scripture for Humane Kings who wish to Protect their States, has no particular connection to the Vinaya school.”

What the sources say

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  cites [55]

In the paper

“At that time Dai had vowed to repair the structures on Baohua and to build a lecture platform and a memorial pavilion, projects that he expected to cost 100,000 yuan.”

What the sources say

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  cites [63]

In the paper

“The article repeats Dai's 1926 account of having been taught Buddhist practice by his mother, as well as his narrative of being saved from the river by the halo of Buddha-light.Foyin adds his own editorial spin to the story, however, when he proclaims this as evidence of the Buddha's salvific power and proof that Buddhism is more than just mere superstition.”

What the sources say

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  cites [43]

In the paper

“In June 1922 his Hankou Buddhist Association (Hankou Fojiao hui) 漢口佛教會 published an article in Haichao yin urging all Buddhist associations and institutions to read and discuss the Scripture for Humane Kings for the sake of national and world peace.The article links the natural disasters narrated in the scripture to China's domestic unrest since the 1911 revolution”

What the sources say

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  cites [58]

In the paper

“He also casts doubt on the esoteric tradition and the efficacy of the Panchen lama, pointing out that the Tibetan master not only eats meat, thereby breaking the prohibition”

What the sources say

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  cites [79]

In the paper

“In his article Zhu objects to the Baohua assembly on the grounds that relying on rituals to cure national crises is pointless, as these problems were caused by the people's own bad acts and can only be changed if our their circumstances are first changed.”

What the sources say

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  cites [79]

In the paper

“In this book Dai narrates Japan's emergence as a powerful and united nation in order to put China's faults into relief and to suggest how it might learn from Japan's experience of modernization.Religion appears as a central concern”

What the sources say

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  cites [50]

In the paper

“The result is that it is rather difficult to penetrate these embellishments to see how Dai's personal engagement with Buddhism developed in the years between 1922 and 1930.”

What the sources say

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  cites [46]

In the paper

“The government's aim was to secure political control over Tibet, whereas the Panchen lama reportedly made skillful use of Chinese rhetoric in seeking to preserve the autonomy of the Tibetan people.”

What the sources say

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  cites [65]

In the paper

“The overall message of Dai's vows is that China's national crises stem from the communal karma of its citizens, and that they must repent of past bad deeds in order to cleanse away its effect on the nation.”

What the sources say

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  cites [75]

In the paper

“Yet in spite of the limited role that Buddhist themes play in this account, it forms the core of nearly all subsequent narratives that describe Dai's turn toward Buddhism.”

What the sources say

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  cites [43]
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  cites [45]

In the paper

“Finally, Dai addresses the community of Buddhist followers (Fojiao dazhong 佛教大眾), warning them against being confused by heterodoxy, worldly matters, demons and spirits, and urging them not to be held back by established custom.They are urged to, among other things, distribute both worldly wealth and the dharma to others, to proclaim the ten kinds of wholesome behavior to the mundane world, to rev”

What the sources say

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  cites [75]

In the paper

“Introducing this type of communal marking of national history would bring the nation into Buddhist institutions in a very public way, transforming daily temple life in the process.”

In the paper

“He expresses his wish that citizens have strong faith, conduct themselves morally, work hard and be filial so that the nation may be strengthened.”

What the sources say

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  cites [75]

In the paper

“The first nation-protecting Dharma assembly at Baohua mountain took place on November 16, 1931, led by the Panchen lama.Among those in attendance were Dai, Dai's wife Niu Youheng (1886-1941), his son Anguo 安國 (1912-1984), Jiang Weiguo 蔣緯國 (1916-1997), head of the Judicial yuan (Sifa yuan 司法院) Ju Zheng 居正 (1876-1951) and head of the Control yuan (Jiancha yuan 監察院) Yu Youren 于右任 (1879-1964).”

What the sources say

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  cites [74]

In the paper

“The fifth of these platforms was to be dedicated specifically for the benefit of all sentient beings, the protection of China's national territory and people, and the complete establishment and fulfillment of the Three Principles of the People and the Five Branches of the Chinese state.”

What the sources say

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  cites [70]

In the paper

“As mentioned above, Tibetan lamas had begun to resurrect their former role as ritual specialists to the imperial court, and the Panchen lama in particular was a figure whose power and prestige had been publicly recognized by the state.”

What the sources say

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  cites [67]

In the paper

“The publicization of this event helped to reestablish the statesupporting role that lamas had played during imperial times, and also to create an aura of spiritual power based on their mastery of esoteric teachings.”

What the sources say

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  cites [67]

In the paper

“Dai urges the Chinese government to be honest and faithful, and he also exhorts the nations of the world to cooperate, abandon violence, and protect nations weaker than themselves.”

What the sources say

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  cites [75]

In the paper

“Overall it is clear that Dai's religion was very much a matter of public record, as was his role in pushing changes within the religious realm.”

In the paper

“The role of Buddhism was to guide the people in proper moral behavior and to serve as a means for corporate unity, two themes that had already been introduced in Dai's book Riben lun.”

In the paper

“As Dai was head of the Examination yuan (Kaoshi yuan), three of the five branches of the Republican government were represented at the assembly.”

In the paper

“He argues that one can attempt to oppose religion, but neither individuals nor societies can live by rationality alone, and in fact a people (minzu 民族) must have some kind of belief (xinyang 信仰) in order that they may be able to make sacrifices and help others.”

What the sources say

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  cites [53]

In the paper

“Such a program of reform, if realized, would represent an unprecedented degree of state control over religion in China”

In the paper

“Moreover, as a popular and well-respected center of ordination, Longchang Temple had the potential to influence Buddhist institutions across the country by producing monastic leaders who would carry these new traditions with them.”

In the paper

“A report published in Buddhism Semimonthly (Foxue banyue kan 佛學半月刊) announced that the Buddhist laymen Di Chuqing 狄楚青 (ca.1873-1941), Zhu Ziqiao 朱子橋 (1874-1941), Wen Lanting 聞蘭亭 (1870-1948) and others had invited the monk Chisong 持松 (1894-1972) to perform a nation-protecting Dharma assembly in Shanghai that would begin on November 7.”

What the sources say

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  cites [72]

In the paper

“It was close to the new national capital of Nanjing, but far enough removed to be at arm's length from city authorities.This may be why Dai had overlooked urban institutions such as Pilu Temple 毗盧寺, situated in the capital a few streets away from the Presidential Palace.”

What the sources say

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  cites [78]

In the paper

“At least part of Zhu's objection may stem from his background as part of the lay Buddhist educated elite, who largely valued textual learning and philosophy over ritual and magical means.”

In the paper

“Since Dai's vows focus on moral rejuvenation and religious reform, Zhu's critique does seem rather overstated, yet he has pointed out something curious about Dai's orchestration of the assembly on Baohua.”

In the paper

“Before Buddhism could save the nation, it itself had to be purged of what Dai identified as superstition, and reformed into something that was modern, scientific, relevant to the public and authentic to its traditions.”

In the paper

“For Dai, it would seem that in order to survive the crises of the modern age, Buddhism had to be thoroughly reconstructed, and his efforts to change practice on Baohua mountain were initial, experimental steps toward this end.”

In the paper

“The connection between a national people and its religion recalls his observations of Japanese religion in Riben lun, while the theme of Buddhist reform is further developed from his published vows and private correspondence regarding the assembly on Baohua mountain.”

In the paper

“The term zongjiao was coined in Japan as shūkyō and brought into the Chinese lexicon in 1890.”

What the sources say

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  cites Federico Masini, The Formation of Modern Chinese Lexicon

In the paper

“The terminologies of modernity to which Dai refers had entered the Chinese lexicon quite recently, often from Japanese translations of European terms.”

What the sources say

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  cites Masini

In the paper

“Yet the changes he proposed for Buddhist culture in China were quite drastic -transforming the monastic ritual calender, purging 'superstition' and ignorance, and focusing the power of Buddhism toward the education of the people along nationalist, moralistic lines.”

In the paper

“Like many Buddhists in the Republican period, Dai sought not only to save the nation through Buddhism, but also to save Buddhism by reconstructing it along the lines of the modern nation form.”

In the paper

“Thus while it is quite clear that Dai wished Buddhism to play a central role in the task of national salvation, it is somewhat less clear what this Buddhism would look like after being reformed and regulated to the degree he envisioned.”