Cited by 251Meta-analysis and systematic reviewsStatistical Methods in Clinical TrialsStatistical Methods in Epidemiology

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 18 of the 18 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Simpson's paradox and calculation of number needed to treat from meta-analysis

Open access

Cates, Christopher J·2002·BMC Medical Research Methodology

DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-2-1PMC PMC65632

Open this paper in CoChat — free account Open PDF

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Calculation of numbers needed to treat (NNT) is more complex from meta-analysis than from single trials. Treating the data as if it all came from one trial may lead to misleading results when the trial arms are imbalanced. DISCUSSION: An example is shown from a published Cochrane review in which the benefit of nursing intervention for smoking cessation is shown by formal meta-analysis of the individual trial results. However if these patients were added together as if they all came from one trial the direction of the effect appears to be reversed (due to Simpson's paradox). Whilst NNT from meta-analysis can be calculated from pooled Risk Differences, this is unlikely to be a stable method unless the event rates in the control groups are very similar. Since in practice event rates vary considerably, the use a relative measure, such as Odds Ratio or Relative Risk is advocated. These can be applied to different levels of baseline risk to generate a risk specific NNT for the treatment. SUMMARY: The method used to calculate NNT from meta-analysis should be clearly stated, and adding the patients from separate trials as if they all came from one trial should be avoided.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/1471-2288-2-1

Cites

18 of 18 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Meta-analysis: Principles and procedures
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., & Phillips, A. N. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7121.1533 · Cited by 2,415
Systematic Reviews in Health Care : Meta-Analysis in Context
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., & Altman, D. G. (2000) · Cited by 2,312
Systematic Reviews in Health Care: Meta‐analysis in Context
Pittler, M. (2010) · Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies · doi:10.1111/j.2042-7166.2002.tb05479.x · Cited by 1,639
Systematic Reviews in Health Care. Meta-analysis in Context.
Kleijnen, J., & Antes, G. (2002) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/31.3.697 · Cited by 1,374
Confidence intervals for the number needed to treat.
Altman, D. G. (1998) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.317.7168.1309 · Cited by 938
Nursing interventions for smoking cessation
Rice, V. H., & Stead, L. F. (2008) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001188.pub3 · Cited by 662
On Simpson's Paradox and the Sure-Thing Principle
Blyth, C. R. (1972) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1972.10482387 · Cited by 640
Numbers needed to treat derived from meta-analyses---sometimes informative, usually misleading
Smeeth, L. L., Haines, A., & Ebrahim, S. B. J. (1999) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.318.7197.1548 · Cited by 299
Smoking Cessation in Hospitalized Patients
Miller, N. H. (1997) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.1997.00440250059007 · Cited by 200
Effect Measures for Meta‒Analysis of Trials with Binary Outcomes
Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2001) · doi:10.1002/9780470693926.ch16 · Cited by 176

Show all 17 references

Research works printed but not linked: 1

Senn S: At Odds with reality. BMJ Rapid Response. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/eletters/318/7197/1548#EL2]

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 250

Colchicine for prevention of post-cardiac procedure atrial fibrillation: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Salih, M., Smer, A. M., Charnigo, R. J., Ayan, M., Darrat, Y., Traina, M. I., MORALES, G. X., Biase, L. D., Natale, A., & Elayi, C. S. (2017) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.04.022 · Cited by 50
Biomarkers of Cerebral Injury for Prediction of Postoperative Cognitive Dysfunction in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery
Wiberg, S. C., Holmgaard, F., Zetterberg, H., Nilsson, J. C., Kjærgaard, J., Wanscher, M. C. J., Langkilde, A. R., Hassager, C., Rasmussen, L. S., Blennow, K., et al. (2021) · Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia · doi:10.1053/j.jvca.2021.05.016 · Cited by 50
Is urinary tract cytology still useful for diagnosis of bladder carcinomas? A large series of 592 bladder washings using a five‐category classification of different cytological diagnoses
Garbar, C., Mascaux, C., & Wespes, E. (2007) · Cytopathology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2303.2007.00426.x · Cited by 49
Bias and precision of methods for estimating the difference in restricted mean survival time from an individual patient data meta-analysis
Lueza, B., Rotolo, F., Bonastre, J., Pignon, J., & Michiels, S. (2016) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-016-0137-z · Cited by 49
Healthcare utilization and economic burden of difficult-to-treat rheumatoid arthritis: a cost-of-illness study
Roodenrijs, N. M. T., Welsing, P. M. J., van der Goes, M. C., Tekstra, J., Lafeber, F. P. J. G., Jacobs, J. W. G., & van Laar, J. M. (2021) · Lara D. Veeken · doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keab078 · Cited by 49
An examination of the equivalency of self-report measures obtained from crowdsourced versus undergraduate student samples
Briones, E. M., & Benham, G. (2017) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-016-0710-8 · Cited by 48
Safety and Efficacy of Tumor Necrosis Factor Antagonists in Older Patients With Ulcerative Colitis: Patient-Level Pooled Analysis of Data From Randomized Trials
Cheng, D. T.-Y., Cushing, K. C., Cai, T., & Ananthakrishnan, A. N. (2020) · Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology · doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2020.04.070 · Cited by 48
Characterizing unsuccessful animal adoptions: age and breed predict the likelihood of return, reasons for return and post-return outcomes
Powell, L., Reinhard, C., Satriale, D., Morris, M., Serpell, J., & Watson, B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-87649-2 · Cited by 47
Efficacy, tolerability, and safety of xanomeline-trospium chloride for schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fabiano, N., Wong, S., Zhou, C., Correll, C. U., Højlund, M., & Solmi, M. (2024) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2024.11.013 · Cited by 51
The validity and accuracy of clinical tests used to detect labral pathology of the shoulder – A systematic review
Munro, W., & Healy, R. (2008) · Manual Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.math.2008.08.008 · Cited by 45
Network Meta-Analysis Techniques for Synthesizing Prevention Science Evidence
Seitidis, G., Nikolakopoulos, S., Hennessy, E., Tanner‐Smith, E. E., & Mavridis, D. (2021) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-021-01289-6 · Cited by 45
Highly purified HMG versus recombinant FSH for ovarian stimulation in IVF cycles
Platteau, P., Andersen, A. N., Loft, A. G., Smitz, J. E. J., Danglas, P., & Devroey, P. (2008) · Reproductive BioMedicine Online · doi:10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60194-0 · Cited by 44
Impact of the REACH II and REACH VA Dementia Caregiver Interventions on Healthcare Costs
Nichols, L. O., Martindale-Adams, J. L., Zhu, C. W., Kaplan, E. K., Zuber, J. K., & Waters, T. M. (2017) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.14716 · Cited by 45
Psychological therapies for anxiety and depression in children and adolescents with long-term physical conditions
Thabrew, H., Stasiak, K., Hetrick, S. E., Wong, S., Huss, J. H., & Merry, S. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012488 · Cited by 46
Early life vitamin D status and asthma and wheeze: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Shen, S., Xiao, W., Lu, J., Yuan, M., He, J., Xia, H., Qiu, X., Cheng, K. K., & Lam, H. K. B. (2018) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-018-0679-4 · Cited by 47
The use of ultrasound guidance for perioperative neuraxial and peripheral nerve blocks in children
Guay, J. M. Y., Suresh, S., & Kopp, S. L. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011436.pub2 · Cited by 43
Anesthetic dose neuraxial blockade increases the success rate of external fetal version: a meta-analysis
Lavoie, A., & Guay, J. M. Y. (2010) · Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d anesthésie · doi:10.1007/s12630-010-9278-4 · Cited by 43
The relationship between second‐year medical students’ OSCE scores and USMLE Step 2 scores
Simon, S. R., Bui, A., Day, S., Berti, D. J., & Volkan, K. (2007) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2006.00768.x · Cited by 42
A work‐for‐food enrichment program increases exploration and decreases stereotypies in four species of bears
Wagman, J. D., Lukas, K. E., Dennis, P. M., Willis, M. A., Carroscia, J., Gindlesperger, C., & Schook, M. W. (2018) · Zoo Biology · doi:10.1002/zoo.21391 · Cited by 41
Sub-Tenon's anaesthesia versus topical anaesthesia for cataract surgery
Guay, J. M. Y., & Sales, K. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006291.pub3 · Cited by 41
A new unified framework for the early detection of the progression to diabetic retinopathy from fundus images
Leontidis, G., Al-Diri, B., & Hunter, A. (2017) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2017.09.008 · Cited by 41
A Review of the Use of the Number Needed to Treat to Evaluate the Efficacy of Analgesics
Katz, N. P., Paillard, F. C., & Inwegen, R. V. (2014) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2014.08.005 · Cited by 38
Manual and Instrument Applied Cervical Manipulation for Mechanical Neck Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Gorrell, L. M., Beath, K., & Engel, R. M. (2016) · Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2016.03.003 · Cited by 40
Long acting insulin analogues versus NPH insulin (human isophane insulin) for type 2 diabetes mellitus
Horvath, K., Jeitler, K., Berghold, A., Plank, J., Pieber, T. R., & Siebenhofer, A. (2006) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd005613.pub2 · Cited by 38
Comparison of GLP-1 Analogues versus Sitagliptin in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Head-to-Head Studies
Wang, T., Gou, Z., Wang, F., Ma, M., & Zhai, S.-D. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103798 · Cited by 37
Connected Speech Characteristics of Bengali Speakers With Alzheimer's Disease: Evidence for Language-Specific Diagnostic Markers
Bose, A., Dash, N. S., Ahmed, S., Dutta, M., Dutt, A., Nandi, R., Cheng, Y., & Mello, T. M. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.707628 · Cited by 40
Health status and associated factors among the community-dwelling elderly in China
Chao, J., Li, Y., Xu, H., Yu, Q., Wang, Y., & Liu, P. (2012) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2012.10.001 · Cited by 33
Oral 5-aminosalicylic acid for maintenance of surgically-induced remission in Crohn's disease
Gordon, M. A., Naidoo, K., Thomas, A. G., & Akobeng, A. K. (2011) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008414.pub2 · Cited by 33
Mucolytic agents for chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Poole, P., & Black, P. (2010) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001287.pub3 · Cited by 31
Estimating risk difference from relative association measures in meta-analysis can infrequently pose interpretational challenges
Murad, M. H., Montori, V. M., Walter, S. D., & Guyatt, G. H. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2008.11.005 · Cited by 30
Update on pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic therapies for smoking cessation.
Schmelzle, J., Rosser, W., & Birtwhistle, R. (2008) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 28
Diagnostic value of (1 → 3)-β-D-glucan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for invasive fungal disease: A meta-analysis
Shi, X., Liu, Y., Gu, X., Hao, S., Wang, Y., Yan, D., & Jiang, S.-J. (2016) · Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2016.05.017 · Cited by 28
Predictors of the Quality of Life of Informal Carers of Adults on the Autism Spectrum
Sonido, M. T., Hwang, Y. I., Srasuebkul, P., Trollor, J. N., & Arnold, S. R. C. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05178-3 · Cited by 27
The relative risk of nearside accidents is high for the youngest and oldest pedestrians
Dunbar, G. L. (2011) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.001 · Cited by 27
The Relationship Between Trauma and Clinical Outcome Variables Among Older Adults With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
Cohen, C. I., Palekar, N., Barker, J., & RAMIREZ, P. M. (2011) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e318211817e · Cited by 27
Tests of Noninferiority via Rate Difference for Three-Arm Clinical Trials with Placebo
Tang, M., & Tang, N. (2004) · Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics · doi:10.1081/bip-120037184 · Cited by 27
Language‐related differential item functioning between English and German PROMIS Depression items is negligible
Fischer, F. H., Wahl, I., Nolte, S., Liegl, G., Brähler, E., Löwe, B., & Rose, M. (2016) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1530 · Cited by 26
The subjective-objective deficit paradox in schizotypy extends to emotion regulation and awareness
Li, L. Y., Karcher, N. R., Kerns, J. G., Fung, C. K., & Martin, E. A. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.01.026 · Cited by 27
Factors Associated with Publication Following Presentation at a Transplantation Meeting
Glick, N., MacDonald, I., Knoll, G. A., Brabant, A., & Gourishankar, S. (2006) · American Journal of Transplantation · doi:10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01203.x · Cited by 26
Diagnostic accuracy of preoperative 18F-FDG PET or PET/CT in detecting pelvic and para-aortic lymph node metastasis in patients with endometrial cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Hu, J., Zhang, K., Yan, Y., Zang, Y., Wang, Y., & Xue, F. (2019) · Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics · doi:10.1007/s00404-019-05207-8 · Cited by 25
Yule-Simpson's Paradox in Research
Goltz, H. H., & Smith, M. L. (2020) · Scholarworks (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/dgcc-jv81 · Cited by 23
Risk screening for spontaneous preterm labour
Khan, K. S., & Honest, H. (2007) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2007.03.004 · Cited by 23
Number Needed to Treat ( NNT )
Bender, R. (2005) · Encyclopedia of Biostatistics · doi:10.1002/0470011815.b2a04032 · Cited by 23
Wideband absorbance tympanometry: a novel method in identifying otosclerosis
Karuppannan, A., & Barman, A. (2021) · European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology · doi:10.1007/s00405-020-06571-x · Cited by 22
Methodological Challenges to the Evaluation of Interventions for Foster/Kinship Carers and Children: A Systematic Review
Dickes, A., Kemmis-Riggs, J., & McAloon, J. (2017) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-017-0248-z · Cited by 23
Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials on Patent Foramen Ovale Closure Versus Medical Therapy for Secondary Prevention of Cryptogenic Stroke
Smer, A. M., Salih, M., Haddad, T. M., Guddeti, R. R., Saadi, A., Saurav, A., Belbase, R. H., Ayan, M., Traina, M. I., Alla, V. M., et al. (2018) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2018.02.021 · Cited by 21
Percutaneous closure versus medical therapy for stroke with patent foramen Ovale: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Zhang, X.-L., Kang, L., Wang, L., & Xu, B. (2018) · BMC Cardiovascular Disorders · doi:10.1186/s12872-018-0780-x · Cited by 20
An assessment of the effectiveness of hyaluronic acid and polyacrylamide hydrogel in horses with osteoarthritis: Systematic review and network meta-analysis
Xavier, A. A. D. S., da Rosa, P. P., Mackmill, L. D. B., & Roll, V. F. B. (2020) · Research in Veterinary Science · doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.11.013 · Cited by 21
Usability of the SAFEWAY2SCHOOL system in children with cognitive disabilities
Falkmer, T., Horlin, C., Dahlman, J., Dükic, T., Barnett, T., & Anund, A. (2013) · European Transport Research Review · doi:10.1007/s12544-013-0117-x · Cited by 21
Adjunctive atypical antipsychotic treatment for major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of depression, quality of life, and safety outcomes
Spielmans, G. I., Berman, M. I., Linardatos, E., Rosenlicht, N. Z., Perry, A., & Tsai, A. C. (2016) · Focus · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.140202 · Cited by 20
Biological and Phytochemicals Properties of Monotheca buxifolia: An Unexplored Medicinal Plant
Khan, I., Ali, J. S., Haq, I. U., & Zia, M. (2020) · Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal · doi:10.1007/s11094-020-02194-y · Cited by 20
Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761® in the treatment of dementia: a pharmacoeconomic analysis of the Austrian setting
Rainer, M. K., Mucke, H. A., & Schlaefke, S. (2013) · Wiener klinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1007/s00508-012-0307-x · Cited by 20
Intraoperative use of low volume ventilation to decrease postoperative mortality, mechanical ventilation, lengths of stay and lung injury in patients without acute lung injury
Nguyen, D.-N., Guay, J. M. Y., & Ochroch, E. A. (2014) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011151 · Cited by 19
Wideband absorbance pattern in adults with otosclerosis and ossicular chain discontinuity
Karuppannan, A., & Barman, A. (2020) · Auris Nasus Larynx · doi:10.1016/j.anl.2020.10.019 · Cited by 18
The association between aspirin use and depression: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of observational studies
Kim, H., Kim, J., & Jung, J. G. (2020) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.5011 · Cited by 18
eHealth interventions for anxiety and depression in children and adolescents with long-term physical conditions
Thabrew, H., Stasiak, K., Hetrick, S. E., Wong, S., Huss, J. H., & Merry, S. (2017) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd012489 · Cited by 18
Rectal Indomethacin Prevents Moderate to Severe Post-ERCP Pancreatitis and Death and Should Be Used Before the Procedure: A Meta-Analysis of Aggregate Subgroup Data
Yaghoobi, M., Alzahrani, M. A., McNabb-Baltar, J. Y., Martel, M., & Barkun, A. N. (2018) · Journal of the Canadian Association of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1093/jcag/gwy006 · Cited by 17
Self-report Measures of Resilience in Children and Youth
Vannest, K. J., Ura, S. K., Lavadia, C., & Zolkoski, S. M. (2019) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-019-00252-1 · Cited by 19
Considering the use of induced hypothermia in a pediatric patient with traumatic brain injury: A critical appraisal of two meta-analyses
Shafi, N. I., & Mariscalco, M. M. (2006) · Pediatric Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.pcc.0000235258.79253.8c · Cited by 16
Identification of application and interpretation errors that can occur in pairwise meta-analyses in systematic reviews of interventions: a systematic review
Kanukula, R., Page, M. J., Turner, S., & McKenzie, J. E. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2024.111331 · Cited by 18
Mapping urban residents’ vulnerability to heat in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
Dongo, K., Kablan, A. K. M., & Kouamé, K. F. (2018) · Climate and Development · doi:10.1080/17565529.2018.1450213 · Cited by 16
Patent foramen ovale closure versus medical therapy for prevention of recurrent cryptogenic embolism: updated meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials
Alushi, B., Lauten, A., Cassese, S., Colleran, R., Schüpke, S., Rai, H., Schunkert, H., Meier, B., Landmesser, U., & Kastrati, A. (2018) · Clinical Research in Cardiology · doi:10.1007/s00392-018-1246-y · Cited by 15
Proteomic analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and inflammatory status in postpartum dairy cows supplemented with different sources of omega-3 fatty acids
Kra, G., Nemes-Navon, N., Daddam, J. R., Livshits, L., Jacoby, S., Levin, Y., Zachut, M., & Moallem, U. (2021) · Journal of Proteomics · doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2021.104313 · Cited by 15
Joint effects of folate intake and one-carbon-metabolizing genetic polymorphisms on breast cancer risk: a case-control study in China
Luo, W., Li, B., Lin, F., Yan, B., Du, Y., Mo, X., Wang, L., & Zhang, C. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep29555 · Cited by 15
Neuraxial blockade for the prevention of postoperative mortality and major morbidity: an overview of Cochrane systematic reviews
Guay, J. M. Y., Choi, P., Suresh, S., Ganapathy, S., Albert, N., Kopp, S. L., & Pace, N. L. (2012) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010108 · Cited by 15
Sequential versus Standard Triple Therapy for First-Line Helicobacter pylori Eradication: An Update
Nyssen, O. P., Martínez, B., Mégraud, F., Savarino, V., Fallone, C. A., Bazzoli, F., & Gisbert, J. P. (2024) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics13020136 · Cited by 14
Hierarchy of evidence and appraisal of limitations (HEAL) grading system
Gugiu, P. C. (2014) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2014.08.003 · Cited by 14
Asking New Questions with Old Data: The Centralized Open-Access Rehabilitation Database for Stroke
Lohse, K. R., Schaefer, S. Y., Raikes, A. C., Boyd, L. A., & Lang, C. E. (2016) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2016.00153 · Cited by 14
Diagnostic accuracy of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry for the direct identification of clinical pathogens from urine
Tang, M., Yang, J. L., Li, Y., Zhang, L., Peng, Y., Chen, W., & Liu, J. (2020) · Open Medicine · doi:10.1515/med-2020-0038 · Cited by 15
Factors Affecting Bleeding and Stent Thrombosis in Clinical Trials Comparing Bivalirudin With Heparin During Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
Bittl, J., He, Y.-L., Lang, C., & Dangas, G. (2015) · Circulation. Cardiovascular Interventions · doi:10.1161/circinterventions.115.002789 · Cited by 16
Determinants of improvement trends in health workers’ compliance with outpatient malaria case-management guidelines at health facilities with available “test and treat” commodities in Kenya
Amboko, B., Stepniewska, K., Malla, L., Machini, B., Bejon, P., Snow, R. W., & Zurovac, D. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259020 · Cited by 14
A P-value model for theoretical power analysis and its applications in multiple testing procedures
Zhang, F., & Gou, J. (2016) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-016-0233-0 · Cited by 14
Relative risk reduction: Misinformative measure in clinical trials and COVID-19 vaccine efficacy
Brown, R. B. (2022) · Dialogues in Health · doi:10.1016/j.dialog.2022.100074 · Cited by 11
“On the other hand, unlike risk ratios which “ may be fairly independent of the patients ’ baseline risk status, ” ARR and NNT measures can be pooled together in meta-analyses if “ the event rates in the control groups are very similar ” [27].”
A comparative study of the effects of L1 and L2 prewriting discussions on L2 writing performance
Gao, J., & Min, S. (2021) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2021.102654 · Cited by 12
Clinical outcomes of intravenous iron therapy in patients with heart failure and iron deficiency: Meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized clinical trials
Bhatia, K., Sabharwal, B., Gupta, K., Lopez, P. D., Kaur, A., Bhatia, H. K., Gandhi, K., Niroula, S., Correa, A. A., Birati, E. Y., et al. (2023) · Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jjcc.2023.06.012 · Cited by 11
Bayes Factor Meta-Analysis of the Mortality Claim for Peripheral Paclitaxel-Eluting Devices.
Bittl, J., He, Y.-L., Baber, U., Feldman, R., von Mering, G. V., & Kaul, S. (2019) · JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.jcin.2019.09.028 · Cited by 6
Nursing Home Residence Confounds Gender Differences in Medicare Utilization
Kronman, A. C., Freund, K. M., Hanchate, A. D., Emanuel, E. J., & Ash, A. S. (2010) · Women s Health Issues · doi:10.1016/j.whi.2009.11.016 · Cited by 12
Meta‐analyses of the effects of dopexamine in major surgery: do all roads lead to Rome?
Pandit, J. J. (2009) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2044.2009.05965.x · Cited by 11
A closer look at the distribution of number needed to treat (NNT): a Bayesian approach
Thabane, L. (2003) · Biostatistics · doi:10.1093/biostatistics/4.3.365 · Cited by 11
Effects of utterance length on lip kinematics in aphasia
Bose, A., & Lieshout, P. H. H. M. V. (2008) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2008.03.002 · Cited by 11
A Method to Enhance Determining the Clinical Relevance of Periodontal Research Data: Number Needed to Treat (NNT)
Greenstein, G., & Nunn, M. E. (2004) · Journal of Periodontology · doi:10.1902/jop.2004.75.4.620 · Cited by 11
Treatment course and its predictors in patients with somatoform disorders: A routine outcome monitoring study in secondary psychiatric care
Carlier, I. V. E., Wiltens, D. H. A., van Rood, Y. R., van Veen, T., Dekker, J., & van Hemert, A. M. (2018) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2191 · Cited by 10
Traumatic life-events and alcohol and drug use disorders among Mexican adolescents: Bidirectional associations over 8 years
Borges, G. L. G., Benjet, C. L., Orozco, R., & Medina‐Mora, M. E. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.109051 · Cited by 10
The influence of illness perspectives on self-management of chronic disease
Audulv, Å., Asplund, K., & Norbergh, K. (2011) · Journal of Nursing and Healthcare of Chronic Illness · doi:10.1111/j.1752-9824.2011.01087.x · Cited by 10
Endoscopic Vascular Harvest in Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting Surgery: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials and Controlled Trials
Cheng, D., Allen, K. B., Cohn, W. E., CONNOLLY, M. M., Edgerton, J. R., Falk, V., Martin, J. E., Ohtsuka, T., & Vitali, R. (2005) · Innovations Technology and Techniques in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Surgery · doi:10.1177/155698450500100202 · Cited by 10
Dual Antiplatelet Therapy Continuation Beyond 1 Year After Drug-Eluting Stents
Ferrante, G., Condorelli, G., Pagnotta, P. A., & Reimers, B. (2017) · Circulation Cardiovascular Interventions · doi:10.1161/circinterventions.116.004139 · Cited by 9
Nonparametric Estimation of Asymptomatic Duration from a Randomized Prospective Cancer Screening Trial
Shen, Y., & Huang, X. (2005) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.1541-0420.2005.00363.x · Cited by 9
The challenge of systematic reviews of diagnostic and staging studies in cancer
Lyman, G. H., & Djulbegović, B. (2005) · Cancer Treatment Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2005.07.001 · Cited by 9
The Myth of Making Inferences for an Overall Treatment Efficacy with Data from Multiple Comparative Studies Via Meta-Analysis
Hasegawa, T., Claggett, B. L., Tian, L., Solomon, S. D., Pfeffer, M. A., & Wei, L. (2016) · Statistics in Biosciences · doi:10.1007/s12561-016-9179-3 · Cited by 8
Bayesian approach in pharmacoeconomics: relevance to decision-makers
Shih, Y. T. (2003) · Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research · doi:10.1586/14737167.3.3.237 · Cited by 8
Are we there yet with patent foramen ovale closure for secondary prevention in cryptogenic stroke? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials
Agasthi, P., Kolla, K. R., Yerasi, C., Tullah, S., Pulivarthi, V. S. K. K., Louka, B. F., Arsanjani, R., Yang, E. H., Mookadam, F., & Fortuin, F. D. (2019) · SAGE Open Medicine · doi:10.1177/2050312119828261 · Cited by 8
Acceptability and feasibility of two interventions in the MooDFOOD Trial: a food-related depression prevention randomised controlled trial in overweight adults with subsyndromal symptoms of depression
Owens, M., Watkins, E. R., Bot, M., Brouwer, I. A., Roca, M., Kohls, E., Penninx, B. W. J. H., van Grootheest, G., Cabout, M., Hegerl, U., et al. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-034025 · Cited by 9
Interventions for helping people recognise early signs of recurrence in bipolar disorder
Gupta, S., Onwuchekwa, O., Alla, L. R., Morriss, R. K., Steele, R., & Gupta, N. (2022) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd015343 · Cited by 8
Number Needed to Treat in Multiple Sclerosis Clinical Trials
Okwuokenye, M., Zhang, A., Pace, A., & Peace, K. E. (2017) · Neurology and Therapy · doi:10.1007/s40120-017-0063-y · Cited by 7
Number needed to treat based on real-world evidence for non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants versus vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants in stroke prevention in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation
Brière, J., Bowrin, K., Millier, A., Toumi, M., Wojciechowski, P., & Taieb, V. (2019) · Journal of Medical Economics · doi:10.1080/13696998.2019.1606001 · Cited by 7
Impressions about people with intellectual disability of polish high school students who participated in a workshop led by self-advocates
Nowakowska, I., & Pisula, E. (2021) · Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1108/amhid-02-2021-0010 · Cited by 6
Sports Metaresearch: An Emerging Discipline of Sport Science and Medicine
Warmenhoven, J., Menaspà, P., Borg, D. N., Vazire, S., White, N. M., Sainani, K. L., Nimphius, S., Coutts, A. J., & Impellizzeri, F. M. (2025) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-025-02181-x · Cited by 11
Pharmacological treatment of post-anesthetic shivering: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Charuluxananan, S., Trakulthong, C., Areejunthawat, J., Kooanantkul, C., Jarukasetrporn, C., Patradul, C., Kulpatarapa, C., Angsanakul, J., Assawachananont, J., Tantisathirapoon, C., et al. (2009) · Asian Biomedicine · doi:10.5372/1125 · Cited by 6
Augmenting disease maps: a Bayesian meta-analysis approach
Jahan, F., Duncan, E. W., Cramb, S. M., Baade, P. D., & Mengersen, K. L. (2020) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.192151 · Cited by 6
Effects of image normalization on the statistical analysis of perfusion MRI in elderly brains
Dai, W., Carmichael, O. T., López, O. L., Becker, J. T., Kuller, L. H., & Gach, H. M. (2008) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.21590 · Cited by 6

Authors: Cates, C. J.
Corresponding author: Cates, Christopher J
ORCID: Cates, Christopher J
Venue: BMC Medical Research Methodology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2002-01-25
Volume: 2
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-1
ISSN: 1471-2288 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/1471-2288-2-1
PMC: PMC65632
OpenAlex: W1576173198
Cited by: 251
References: 17
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 10.16
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (unspecified)
Locations: BMC Medical Research Methodology (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
St George's Online Research Archive (St George's University of London) (acceptedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
Keywords: Simpson's paradox, number needed to treat, meta-analysis, risk difference, odds ratio, relative risk, baseline risk, smoking cessation, nursing interventions
MeSH terms: Clinical Trials as Topic, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Statistics as Topic, Meta-Analysis as Topic, Reproducibility of Results, Bias, Odds Ratio, Smoking Cessation, Sample Size

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Simpson's paradox and calculation of number needed to treat from meta-analysis

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks