Cited by 104Diet and metabolism studiesDietary Effects on HealthRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

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"A calorie is a calorie" violates the second law of thermodynamics

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Feinman, Richard D, Fine, Eugene J·2004·Nutrition Journal

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Abstract

The principle of "a calorie is a calorie," that weight change in hypocaloric diets is independent of macronutrient composition, is widely held in the popular and technical literature, and is frequently justified by appeal to the laws of thermodynamics. We review here some aspects of thermodynamics that bear on weight loss and the effect of macronutrient composition. The focus is the so-called metabolic advantage in low-carbohydrate diets – greater weight loss compared to isocaloric diets of different composition. Two laws of thermodynamics are relevant to the systems considered in nutrition and, whereas the first law is a conservation (of energy) law, the second is a dissipation law: something (negative entropy) is lost and therefore balance is not to be expected in diet interventions. Here, we propose that a misunderstanding of the second law accounts for the controversy about the role of macronutrient effect on weight loss and we review some aspects of elementary thermodynamics. We use data in the literature to show that thermogenesis is sufficient to predict metabolic advantage. Whereas homeostasis ensures balance under many conditions, as a general principle, "a calorie is a calorie" violates the second law of thermodynamics.

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Figure 1 Pathways for oxidation of macronutrients.CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 2 The dependence of effective calories on % carbohydrate in a 2000 kcal diet. Effective calories were determined by subtracting the losses due to thermogenesis as described in the text.CC BY · PubMed Central

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To: McAuley KA, Hopkins CM, Smith KJ, McLay RT, Williams SM, Taylor RW, Mann JI (2005) Comparison of high-fat and high-protein diets with a high-carbohydrate diet in insulin-resistant obese women. Diabetologia 48: 8–16
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‘Saturated fat doesn't increase coronary heart disease in people with diabetes’
Deakin, T., & Garden, L. (2015) · Practical Diabetes · doi:10.1002/pdi.1967
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Westman, E. C., Feinman, R. D., Mavropoulos, J. C., Vernon, M. C., Volek, J. S., Wortman, J., Yancy, W. S., & Phinney, S. D. (2007)
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Rastmanesh, R., Carrera‐Bastos, P., Catanzaro, R., & Kumari, A. (2011) · Journal of Obesity & Weight loss Therapy · doi:10.4172/2165-7904.1000e102
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Mylott, E., Kutschera, E., & Widenhorn, R. (2019) · The Physics Teacher · doi:10.1119/1.5126820
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TAN, M. K., Öngel, M. E., Yılmaz, B., & Özilgen, M. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-44-313219-3.00061-7

Authors: Feinman, R. D., & Fine, E. J.
Affiliations: State University of New York (US)
Corresponding author: Feinman, Richard D
ORCID: Feinman, Richard D
Fine, Eugene J
Venue: Nutrition Journal
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2004-07-28
Volume: 3
Issue: 1
Pages: 9-9
ISSN: 1475-2891 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/1475-2891-3-9
PMC: PMC506782
OpenAlex: W2129810037
Cited by: 104
References: 22
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 5
FWCI: 3.92
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
www.springer.com/tdm (unspecified)
Locations: Nutrition Journal (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Diet and metabolism studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Dietary Effects on Health
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: second law of thermodynamics, macronutrient composition, weight loss, hypocaloric diet, low-carbohydrate diet, thermogenesis, homeostasis, energy balance

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"A calorie is a calorie" violates the second law of thermodynamics

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