Do you have AI dependency? The roles of academic self-efficacy, academic stress, and performance expectations on problematic AI usage behavior
Open accessAbstract
Although previous studies have highlighted the problematic artificial intelligence (AI) usage behaviors in educational contexts, such as overreliance on AI, no study has explored the antecedents and potential consequences that contribute to this problem. Therefore, this study investigates the causes and consequences of AI dependency using ChatGPT as an example. Using the Interaction of the Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model, this study explores the internal associations between academic self-efficacy, academic stress, performance expectations, and AI dependency. It also identifies the negative consequences of AI dependency. Analysis of data from 300 university students revealed that the relationship between academic self-efficacy and AI dependency was mediated by academic stress and performance expectations. The top five negative effects of AI dependency include increased laziness, the spread of misinformation, a lower level of creativity, and reduced critical and independent thinking. The findings provide explanations and solutions to mitigate the negative effects of AI dependency.
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While some studies find lower self-reported critical thinking related to LLM-CB use or reduced critical thinking following functional LLM-CB use, other studies found no effects.
“While some studies find lower self-reported critical thinking related to LLM-CB use86,87 or reduced critical thinking following functional LLM-CB use88, other studies found no effects89.”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [87]
Citation 89 is attached to the claim that a study found no effect on critical thinking. The Results instead report that 56 students mentioned reduced critical thinking as a consequence of AI dependency. The Discussion cautions that these consequences were self-reported, but it does not report a null effect on critical thinking. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStudents with a lack of confidence or insufficient understanding of the task may be more inclined to view AI outputs as authoritative answers, which reduces their motivation for active thinking and exploration.
“Additionally, students with a lack of confidence or insufficient understanding of the task may be more inclined to view AI outputs as authoritative answers, which reduces their motivation for active thinking and exploration (Zhang et al., 2024).”
From Facilitator or hindrance? The impact of AI on university students' higher-order thinking skills in complex problem solving (2025) · cites this paper as Zhang et al., 2024
The Introduction says students with low academic confidence may turn to ChatGPT for immediate answers instead of solving problems independently. The Results report reduced critical and independent thinking among consequences students attributed to AI dependency. Neither passage says that insufficient task understanding leads students to treat AI outputs as authoritative, or that doing so reduces their motivation to think and explore. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdditional experimental work has investigated the consequences of cognitive offloading to LLM-CBs are a decrease in cognitive and academic performance and impaired memory.
“Additional experimental work has investigated the consequences of cognitive offloading to LLM-CBs are a decrease in cognitive and academic performance85,87,94 and impaired memory95.”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [87]
The Results (Word Cloud analysis) report students’ perceptions of reduced critical and independent thinking and problem-solving abilities associated with AI dependency. But the Discussion says these consequences were based on subjective self-reports, not experimental tests; the paper does not establish a decrease in academic performance. The impaired-memory claim is attached to a different citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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References 75 · Cited by 409
- Authors
- Zhang, S., Zhao, X., Zhou, T., & Kim, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Sungkyunkwan University (KR)
- Korea University (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Kim, Jang Hyun
- Venue
- International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education
- Published
- 2024-05-17
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2365-9440 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4396946012
- Cited by
- 409
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 251 · 2025: 143 · 2024: 15
- FWCI
- 153.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2023-00208278)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Academic integrity and plagiarism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Keywords
- AI dependency, ChatGPT, academic self-efficacy, academic stress, performance expectations, I-PACE model, university students, overreliance on AI, misinformation, creativity, critical thinking, laziness
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