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Cited by 135Biomimetic flight and propulsion mechanismsPhysiological and biochemical adaptationsAvian ecology and behavior

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Effects of Body Size on Take-off Flight Performance in the Phasianidae (Aves)

Tobalske, Bret W., Dial, Kenneth P.·2000·Journal of Experimental Biology
DOI 10.1242/jeb.203.21.3319
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Abstract

To evaluate the mechanisms responsible for relationships between body mass and maximum take-off performance in birds, we studied four species in the Phasianidae: northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), chukar (Alectoris chukar), ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) and wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). These species vary in body mass from 0.2 to 5.3 kg, and they use flight almost solely to escape predators. During take-off, all the species used a similar wingbeat style that appeared to be a vortex-ring gait with a tip reversal during the upstroke. The tip reversal is unusual for birds with rounded wings; it may offer an aerodynamic advantage during rapid acceleration. Flight anatomy generally scaled geometrically, except for average wing chord and wing area, which increased more than expected as body mass (m) increased. Pectoralis strain varied from 19.1 to 35.2 % and scaled in proportion to m0.23. This positive scaling is not consistent with the widely held assumption that muscle strain is independent of body mass among geometrically similar species. The anatomy of the species precluded measurements of in vivo pectoralis force using the strain-gauge technique that has been employed successfully in other bird species, so we could not directly test in vivo pectoralis force–velocity relationships. However, whole-body kinematics revealed that take-off power (Pta), the excess power available for climbing and accelerating in flight, scaled in proportion to m0.75 and that pectoralis mass-specific Pta decreased in proportion to m−0.26 and was directly proportional to wingbeat frequency. These trends suggest that mass-specific pectoralis work did not vary with body mass and that pectoralis stress and strain were inversely proportional, as expected from classical force–velocity models for skeletal muscle. Our observations of Pta were consistent with evidence from other species engaged in escape flight and, therefore, appear to contradict evidence from studies of take-off or hovering with an added payload.

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  • Neornithines with a deltopectoral crest that is short and deep use high-frequency, rapid wingbeats during flight.

    “In contrast, neornithines with a deltopectoral crest that is short and deep use high-frequency, rapid wingbeats during flight [23, 24].”

    From The ecology of Archaeopteryx (2026) · cites this paper as [24]

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Metadata

Authors
Tobalske, B. W., & Dial, K. P.
Affiliations
Harvard University (US)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Experimental Biology
Publisher
The Company of Biologists
Published
2000-11-01
Volume
203
Issue
21
Pages
3319-3332
ISSN
  • 0022-0949 (ISSN-L)
  • 1477-9145
DOI
10.1242/jeb.203.21.3319
OpenAlex
W1907946587
Cited by
135
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 6
FWCI
16.30
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.biologists.com/user-licence-1-1/ (vor)
Locations
  • Journal of Experimental Biology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Biomimetic flight and propulsion mechanisms
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Physiological and biochemical adaptations
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Avian ecology and behavior
Keywords
takeoff performance, body mass scaling, Phasianidae, pheasants, northern bobwhite, chukar, Phasianus colchicus, Meleagris gallopavo, pectoralis muscle, muscle strain, wingbeat kinematics, wingbeat frequency
MeSH terms
Animals, Biomechanical Phenomena, Birds, Body Constitution, Electromyography, Flight, Animal, Species Specificity, Turkeys, Wings, Animal, Muscle, Skeletal

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