Influence of Tap Water Quality and Household Water Use Activities on Indoor Air and Internal Dose Levels of Trihalomethanes
Open accessAbstract
Individual exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in tap water can occur through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal exposure. Studies indicate that activities associated with inhaled or dermal exposure routes result in a greater increase in blood THM concentration than does ingestion. We measured blood and exhaled air concentrations of THM as biomarkers of exposure to participants conducting 14 common household water use activities, including ingestion of hot and cold tap water beverages, showering, clothes washing, hand washing, bathing, dish washing, and indirect shower exposure. We conducted our study at a single residence in each of two water utility service areas, one with relatively high and the other low total THM in the residence tap water. To maintain a consistent exposure environment for seven participants, we controlled water use activities, exposure time, air exchange, water flow and temperature, and nonstudy THM sources to the indoor air. We collected reference samples for water supply and air (pre–water use activity), as well as tap water and ambient air samples. We collected blood samples before and after each activity and exhaled breath samples at baseline and postactivity. All hot water use activities yielded a 2-fold increase in blood or breath THM concentrations for at least one individual. The greatest observed increase in blood and exhaled breath THM concentration in any participant was due to showering (direct and indirect), bathing, and hand dishwashing. Average increase in blood THM concentration ranged from 57 to 358 pg/mL due to these activities. More research is needed to determine whether acute and frequent exposures to THM at these concentrations have public health implications. Further research is also needed in designing epidemiologic studies that minimize data collection burden yet maximize accuracy in classification of dermal and inhalation THM exposure during hot water use activities.
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TCM levels in various rooms of the swimming pool building were high compared to typical household baseline contamination levels of 1-10 μg/m3 reported by Nuckols et al.
“Interestingly, TCM levels in the various rooms of the swimming pool building was high, compared to typical household baseline contamination levels ranging between 1 and 10 µg/m3 reported by Nuckols et al. [70].”
From Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools (2012) · cites this paper as [70]
The Discussion reports baseline indoor-air THM concentrations of 4 and 3 µg/m³ at the North Carolina residence, both within the cited 1–10 µg/m³ range. It does not establish 1–10 µg/m³ as a typical household range specifically for TCM (chloroform); the study measured two residences and reports those figures as THM concentrations. (LLM, conf=0.86)
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- Authors
- Nuckols, J. R., Ashley, D. L., Lyu, C., Gordon, S. M., Hinckley, A. F., & Singer, P.
- Affiliations
- Colorado State University (US)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Battelle (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Venue
- Environmental Health Perspectives
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2005-03-24
- Volume
- 113
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 863-870
- ISSN
- 0091-6765 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-9924
- PMC
- PMC1257647
- OpenAlex
- W2091148709
- Cited by
- 120
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 6.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor, 4663 d)
- Locations
- Environmental Health Perspectives (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- American Water Works Association Research Foundation
- National Institutes of Health
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- National Cancer Institute
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Indoor Air Quality and Microbial Exposure
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Keywords
- trihalomethanes, household water use, indoor air exposure, dermal exposure, inhalation exposure, showering, bathing, dishwashing, hot water use, tap water quality, biomarkers of exposure, exposure assessment
- MeSH terms
- Air Pollutants, Baths, Breath Tests, Environmental Monitoring, Housing, Humans, Temperature, Volatilization, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Water Supply, Air Pollution, Indoor, Trihalomethanes
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