The DOI matches its Crossref record; 41 of the 42 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Population-Based Incidence of Typhoid Fever in an Urban Informal Settlement and a Rural Area in Kenya: Implications for Typhoid Vaccine Use in Africa
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: High rates of typhoid fever in children in urban settings in Asia have led to focus on childhood immunization in Asian cities, but not in Africa, where data, mostly from rural areas, have shown low disease incidence. We set out to compare incidence of typhoid fever in a densely populated urban slum and a rural community in Kenya, hypothesizing higher rates in the urban area, given crowding and suboptimal access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene. METHODS: During 2007-9, we conducted population-based surveillance in Kibera, an urban informal settlement in Nairobi, and in Lwak, a rural area in western Kenya. Participants had free access to study clinics; field workers visited their homes biweekly to collect information about acute illnesses. In clinic, blood cultures were processed from patients with fever or pneumonia. Crude and adjusted incidence rates were calculated. RESULTS: In the urban site, the overall crude incidence of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. Typhi) bacteremia was 247 cases per 100,000 person-years of observation (pyo) with highest rates in children 5-9 years old (596 per 100,000 pyo) and 2-4 years old (521 per 100,000 pyo). Crude overall incidence in Lwak was 29 cases per 100,000 pyo with low rates in children 2-4 and 5-9 years old (28 and 18 cases per 100,000 pyo, respectively). Adjusted incidence rates were highest in 2-4 year old urban children (2,243 per 100,000 pyo) which were >15-fold higher than rates in the rural site for the same age group. Nearly 75% of S. Typhi isolates were multi-drug resistant. CONCLUSIONS: This systematic urban slum and rural comparison showed dramatically higher typhoid incidence among urban children <10 years old with rates similar to those from Asian urban slums. The findings have potential policy implications for use of typhoid vaccines in increasingly urban Africa.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Overall, the impacts of slum residents' inappropriate antibiotic consumption practices on community-level antimicrobial resistance may explain why a higher proportion of enteric and bloodstream infections among children living in urban informal settlements are resistant to first-line antibiotics, compared to children living in rural areas 27-29 .”
From Urban informal settlements as hotspots of antimicrobial resistance and the need to curb environmental transmission. (2020) · cites this paper as [28]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing by a Standardized Single Disk Method
Bauer, A. W., Kirby, W. M. M., Sherris, J. C., & Turck, M. (1966) · American Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1093/ajcp/45.4_ts.493 · Cited by 18,523
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
(1990) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-112-5-391_3 · Cited by 15,633
Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing; Eighteenth Informational Supplement
Cockerill, F. R., & Clinical (2008) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,065
The global burden of typhoid fever.
(2004) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 1,965
Self-citationHotez, P. J., & Kamath, A. M. (2009) · PLoS neglected tropical diseases · doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000412 · Cited by 1,269
The role of public health improvements in health advances: The twentieth-century United States
Cutler, D., & Miller, G. (2005) · Demography · doi:10.1353/dem.2005.0002 · Cited by 1,164
Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: Twentieth Informational Supplement
Clsi (2010) · Cited by 987
Bacteremia among Children Admitted to a Rural Hospital in Kenya
Berkley, J. A., Lowe, B. S., Mwangi, I., Williams, T., Bauni, E., Mwarumba, S., Ngetsa, C., Slack, M. P. E., Njenga, S., Hart, C. A., et al. (2005) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa040275 · Cited by 851
a study of typhoid fever in five Asian countries: disease burden and implications for controls
Ochiai, R. L. (2008) · Bulletin of the World Health Organization · doi:10.2471/blt.06.039818 · Cited by 682
The Efficacy of aSalmonella typhiVi Conjugate Vaccine in Two-to-Five-Year-Old Children
Lin, F. Y. C., Hó, V. A., Khiem, H. B., Trach, D. D., Bay, P. V. B., Thanh, T. C., Kossaczká, Z., Bryla, D. A., Shiloach, J., Robbins, J. B., et al. (2001) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm200104263441701 · Cited by 464
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 42 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- A Bauer, 1966, Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardised single disc method. Am. J. Clin., Pathol, 45, 493
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–204 of 204
Gupta, S. (2024) · Asian Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.3126/ajms.v15i7.64448
Seroincidence rate of typhoidal Salmonella in children in KenyaPreprint
Khan, A., Kamenskaya, P., de Rezende, I. M., Mutuku, F. M., Ndenga, B. A., Jembe, Z., Maina, P., Chebii, P. K., Ronga, C. O., Okuta, V., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.06.24.25330223
Mandaliya, P., Orangi, S., Kazungu, J., Waithaka, D., Kairu, A., Batiano, A., Masiye, F., Onwujekwe, O. E., & Barasa, E. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.08.21.25334147
Economic burden of typhoid among hospitalised children in Kenya
Mandaliya, P., Orangi, S., Waluke, I., Okech, F., Masiye, F., Onwujekwe, O. E., Chola, L., & Barasa, E. (2026) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2025-023131 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Breiman, R. F., Cosmas, L., Njuguna, H., Audi, A., Olack, B., Ochieng, J. B., Wamola, N., Bigogo, G. M., Awiti, G., Tabu, C. W., Burke, H., Williamson, J., Oundo, J. O., Mintz, E. D., & Feikin, D. R.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Ministry of Health (KE)
- Corresponding author
- Breiman, Robert F.
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2012-01-19
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e29119
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3261857
- OpenAlex
- W2021755623
- Cited by
- 204
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 33.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Salmonella and Campylobacter epidemiology
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Microbiology › Bacterial Infections and Vaccines
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Pneumonia and Respiratory Infections
- Keywords
- typhoid fever, Salmonella typhi, typhoid vaccine, urban informal settlements, slums, urban-rural differences, bacteremia, multidrug resistance, Kibera, Kenya, water, sanitation and hygiene, urbanization in Africa
- MeSH terms
- Africa, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Male, Rural Population, Typhoid Fever, Typhoid-Paratyphoid Vaccines, Urban Population, Incidence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
