CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 235

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 4 of the 4 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Tone Language Speakers and Musicians Share Enhanced Perceptual and Cognitive Abilities for Musical Pitch: Evidence for Bidirectionality between the Domains of Language and Music

Bidelman, Gavin M., Hutka, Stefanie, Moreno, Sylvain·2013·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0060676PMC PMC3614545
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0060676

Cites

4 of 4 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Figures

Figure 1 Schematic spectrograms of the various perceptual tasks used in the study . (A) Fundamental frequency difference limens (F0 DLs). Participants were instructed to detect the interval containing the higher pitch. (B) Pitch speed. Following a brief warble tone (distracter) and period of silence, listeners heard two pure-tones and were asked to identify their direction (i.e., ascending or descending). Test tone duration was varied adaptively to measure listener’s temporal threshold for identifying directional changes in pitch. (C) Pitch memory ability was assessed based on how well listeners judged whether or not a single probe tone had been heard in a preceding four-note melody. (D) Melody discrimination was measured by assessing how well listeners could discriminate short melodies that differed by as little as ½ or ¼ semitone (grey oval).
Figure 1 Schematic spectrograms of the various perceptual tasks used in the study . (A) Fundamental frequency difference limens (F0 DLs). Participants were instructed to detect the interval containing the higher pitch. (B) Pitch speed. Following a brief warble tone (distracter) and period of silence, listeners heard two pure-tones and were asked to identify their direction (i.e., ascending or descending). Test tone duration was varied adaptively to measure listener’s temporal threshold for identifying directional changes in pitch. (C) Pitch memory ability was assessed based on how well listeners judged whether or not a single probe tone had been heard in a preceding four-note melody. (D) Melody discrimination was measured by assessing how well listeners could discriminate short melodies that differed by as little as ½ or ¼ semitone (grey oval).CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Group performance on measures of general cognitive ability . (A) Nonverbal fluid intelligence as measured by Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices. Dotted line denotes chance performance. (B) Spatial working memory span as measured by Corsi blocks. No group differences were observed for general intelligence but musicians showed better performance in working memory capacity as indicated by their larger memory span length relative to C and NM. Here and throughout, error bars = s.e.m., *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001, M: Musicians, C: Cantonese, NM: English-speaking nonmusicians.
Figure 2 Group performance on measures of general cognitive ability . (A) Nonverbal fluid intelligence as measured by Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices. Dotted line denotes chance performance. (B) Spatial working memory span as measured by Corsi blocks. No group differences were observed for general intelligence but musicians showed better performance in working memory capacity as indicated by their larger memory span length relative to C and NM. Here and throughout, error bars = s.e.m., *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001, M: Musicians, C: Cantonese, NM: English-speaking nonmusicians.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Group performance on basic psychoacoustic measures of auditory processing . (A) Fundamental frequency difference limens (F0 DLs) measure the smallest change in pitch listeners can reliably detect. (B) Pitch speed measures listeners’ temporal threshold for resolving directional changes in pitch. For both metrics, smaller values represent better performance. Pitch discrimination and speed of processing are markedly better in both musician and Cantonese-speaking participants indicating that both musical and linguistic pitch experience are associated with improvements in basic auditory acuity. No differences were observed between M and C. (C) Behavioral sensitivity (bars) and reaction time (lines) in recalling whether or not a single probe tone had occurred in the preceding tonally ambiguous melody. Relative to Cantonese-speaking listeners and nonmusician controls, musicians showed superior ability in both memory accuracy and speed of recall. Cantonese outperformed nonmusicians in accuracy but also suffered a time-accuracy tradeoff as indicated by their slower reaction times.
Figure 3 Group performance on basic psychoacoustic measures of auditory processing . (A) Fundamental frequency difference limens (F0 DLs) measure the smallest change in pitch listeners can reliably detect. (B) Pitch speed measures listeners’ temporal threshold for resolving directional changes in pitch. For both metrics, smaller values represent better performance. Pitch discrimination and speed of processing are markedly better in both musician and Cantonese-speaking participants indicating that both musical and linguistic pitch experience are associated with improvements in basic auditory acuity. No differences were observed between M and C. (C) Behavioral sensitivity (bars) and reaction time (lines) in recalling whether or not a single probe tone had occurred in the preceding tonally ambiguous melody. Relative to Cantonese-speaking listeners and nonmusician controls, musicians showed superior ability in both memory accuracy and speed of recall. Cantonese outperformed nonmusicians in accuracy but also suffered a time-accuracy tradeoff as indicated by their slower reaction times.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Group comparison of musical melody discrimination . (A) Sensitivity (d′) for discriminating melodies differing by ½ semitone. A systematic gradient is observed in performance across groups (M > C > NM). The fact that Cantonese participants outperform nonmusicians suggests that tone-language speakers have behavioral advantages in musical pitch perception. (B) Discrimination sensitivity for melodies differing by ¼ semitone. Musicians showed superior discrimination relative to Cantonese and nonmusicians; no group differences were found between C and NM in this difficult condition.
Figure 4 Group comparison of musical melody discrimination . (A) Sensitivity (d′) for discriminating melodies differing by ½ semitone. A systematic gradient is observed in performance across groups (M > C > NM). The fact that Cantonese participants outperform nonmusicians suggests that tone-language speakers have behavioral advantages in musical pitch perception. (B) Discrimination sensitivity for melodies differing by ¼ semitone. Musicians showed superior discrimination relative to Cantonese and nonmusicians; no group differences were found between C and NM in this difficult condition.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Correlations between perceptual and cognitive abilities . Cells of each matrix represent the correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) between pairs of tasks where the color denotes the magnitude of correspondence. Warmer colors denote positive associations; cooler colors denote negative associations. Correlations are threshold at p < 0.05 (uncorrected) such that only significant cells are visible. Starred cells denote correlations surviving correction for multiple comparisons using a false discovery rate of α = 0.05 [89].
Figure 5 Correlations between perceptual and cognitive abilities . Cells of each matrix represent the correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) between pairs of tasks where the color denotes the magnitude of correspondence. Warmer colors denote positive associations; cooler colors denote negative associations. Correlations are threshold at p < 0.05 (uncorrected) such that only significant cells are visible. Starred cells denote correlations surviving correction for multiple comparisons using a false discovery rate of α = 0.05 [89].CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 6 Scatter plots illustrating the correspondence between expertise and behavioral measures of musical pitch ability . (A) Musical training predicts easy and difficult melody discrimination performance (left and middle panels) as well as pitch memory ability (right panel). Positive associations indicate that recall and sensitivity for pitch patterns is sharpened with continued musical training. (B) English as a Second Language (ESL) age predicts Cantonese speakers’ pitch and melody discrimination performance (left and middle panels, respectively). ESL age is associated with the percentage of L1 daily use (right panel) such that late bilinguals (i.e., higher ESL age) continue to use their native Cantonese on a more regular basis than early onset bilinguals. As with musical training, extended experience with linguistic pitch appears to improve music perception ability. Open circles denote points deemed influential observations via Cook’s D [90] excluded from the regression analyses prior to least squares fitting. Stars denote uncorrected significance levels: *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001. Note that given three tests per group (C, M), a Bonferroni corrected family-wise error rate of α = 0.05 would require p< 0.0167.
Figure 6 Scatter plots illustrating the correspondence between expertise and behavioral measures of musical pitch ability . (A) Musical training predicts easy and difficult melody discrimination performance (left and middle panels) as well as pitch memory ability (right panel). Positive associations indicate that recall and sensitivity for pitch patterns is sharpened with continued musical training. (B) English as a Second Language (ESL) age predicts Cantonese speakers’ pitch and melody discrimination performance (left and middle panels, respectively). ESL age is associated with the percentage of L1 daily use (right panel) such that late bilinguals (i.e., higher ESL age) continue to use their native Cantonese on a more regular basis than early onset bilinguals. As with musical training, extended experience with linguistic pitch appears to improve music perception ability. Open circles denote points deemed influential observations via Cook’s D [90] excluded from the regression analyses prior to least squares fitting. Stars denote uncorrected significance levels: *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001. Note that given three tests per group (C, M), a Bonferroni corrected family-wise error rate of α = 0.05 would require p< 0.0167.CC BY · PubMed Central

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Show all 4 references

Research works printed but not linked: 82

  1. Patel AD (2008) Music, language, and the brain. NY: Oxford University Press. · DOI
  2. LR Slevc, 2009, Making psycholinguistics musical: Self-paced reading time evidence for shared processing of linguistic and musical syntax, Psychon B Rev, 16, 374, 10.3758/16.2.374 · DOI
  3. GM Bidelman, 2011, Cross-domain effects of music and language experience on the representation of pitch in the human auditory brainstem, J Cogn Neurosci, 23, 425, 10.1162/jocn.2009.21362 · DOI
  4. B Maess, 2001, Musical syntax is processed in Broca's area: An MEG study, Nat Neurosci, 4, 540, 10.1038/87502 · DOI · Paper page
  5. S Koelsch, 2002, Bach speaks: A cortical "language-network" serves the processing of music, Neuroimage, 17, 956, 10.1006/nimg.2002.1154 · DOI
  6. AD Patel, 1998, Processing syntactic relations in language and music: An event-related potential study, J Cogn Neurosci, 10, 717, 10.1162/089892998563121 · DOI
  7. P Vuust, 2006, It don't mean a thing... Keeping the rhythm during polyrhythmic tension, activates language areas (BA47), Neuroimage, 31, 832
  8. E Bialystok, 2009, Musical expertise, bilingualism, and executive functioning, Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception and Performance, 35, 565, 10.1037/a0012735 · DOI
  9. S Moreno, 2009, Can music influence language and cognition?, Contemporary Music Review, 28, 329, 10.1080/07494460903404410 · DOI
  10. MS Franklin, 2008, The effects of musical training on verbal memory, Psychol Music, 36, 353, 10.1177/0305735607086044 · DOI · Paper page
  11. AS Chan, 1998, Music training improves verbal memory, Nature, 396, 128, 10.1038/24075 · DOI
  12. S Moreno, 2011, Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence and executive function, Psychological Science, 22, 1425, 10.1177/0956797611416999 · DOI · Paper page
  13. GM Bidelman, 2010, Effects of reverberation on brainstem representation of speech in musicians and non-musicians, Brain Res, 1355, 112, 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.07.100 · DOI
  14. WF Thompson, 2004, Decoding speech prosody: Do music lessons help?, Emotion, 4, 46, 10.1037/1528-3542.4.1.46 · DOI
  15. R Milovanov, 2009, The role of musical aptitude and language skills in preattentive duration processing in school-aged children, Neurosci Lett, 460, 161, 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.05.063 · DOI
  16. A Parbery-Clark, 2009, Musician enhancement for speech-in-noise, Ear Hear, 30, 653, 10.1097/AUD.0b013e3181b412e9 · DOI
  17. LR Slevc, 2006, Individual differences in second-language proficiency: Does musical ability matter?, Psychological Science, 17, 675, 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01765.x · DOI
  18. C Marques, 2007, Musicians detect pitch violation in a foreign language better than nonmusicians: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence, J Cogn Neurosci, 19, 1453, 10.1162/jocn.2007.19.9.1453 · DOI
  19. CY Lee, 2008, Identification of Mandarin tones by English-speaking musicians and nonmusicians, J Acoust Soc Am, 124, 3235, 10.1121/1.2990713 · DOI
  20. F Delogu, 2010, From melody to lexical tone: Musical ability enhances specific aspects of foreign language perception, European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 22, 46, 10.1080/09541440802708136 · DOI
  21. F Delogu, 2006, Music-to-language transfer effect: May melodic ability improve learning of tonal languages by native nontonal speakers?, Cognitive Processing, 7, 203, 10.1007/s10339-006-0146-7 · DOI
  22. D Schon, 2004, The music of speech: Music training facilitates pitch processing in both music and language, Psychophysiology, 41, 341, 10.1111/1469-8986.00172.x · DOI
  23. C Pantev, 2001, Timbre-specific enhancement of auditory cortical representations in musicians, Neuroreport, 12, 169, 10.1097/00001756-200101220-00041 · DOI
  24. B Chandrasekaran, 2009, Relative influence of musical and linguistic experience on early cortical processing of pitch contours, Brain Lang, 108, 1, 10.1016/j.bandl.2008.02.001 · DOI
  25. C Marie, 2010, Musicians and the metric structure of words, J Cogn Neurosci, 23, 294, 10.1162/jocn.2010.21413 · DOI
  26. S Moreno, 2009, Musical training influences linguistic abilities in 8-year-old children: More evidence for brain plasticity, Cereb Cortex, 19, 712, 10.1093/cercor/bhn120 · DOI
  27. C Marie, 2011, Influence of musical expertise on segmental and tonal processing in Mandarin Chinese, J Cogn Neurosci, 23, 2701, 10.1162/jocn.2010.21585 · DOI
  28. G Musacchia, 2008, Relationships between behavior, brainstem and cortical encoding of seen and heard speech in musicians and non-musicians, Hear Res, 241, 34, 10.1016/j.heares.2008.04.013 · DOI
  29. A Parbery-Clark, 2009, Musical experience limits the degradative effects of background noise on the neural processing of sound, J Neurosci, 29, 14100, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3256-09.2009 · DOI
  30. AD Patel, 2011, Why would musical training benefit the neural encoding of speech? The OPERA hypothesis, Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 142, 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00142 · DOI · Paper page
  31. GM Bidelman, 2011, Musicians and tone-language speakers share enhanced brainstem encoding but not perceptual benefits for musical pitch, Brain Cogn, 77, 1, 10.1016/j.bandc.2011.07.006 · DOI
  32. J Krizman, 2012, Subcortical encoding of sound is enhanced in bilinguals and relates to executive function advantages, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 109, 7877, 10.1073/pnas.1201575109 · DOI
  33. EG Schellenberg, 2008, Music, language and cognition: Unresolved issues, Trends Cogn Sci, 12, 45, 10.1016/j.tics.2007.11.005 · DOI
  34. EG Schellenberg, 2008, Is there an Asian advantage for pitch memory, Music Percept, 25, 241, 10.1525/mp.2008.25.3.241 · DOI
  35. D Deutsch, 2006, Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period, J Acoust Soc Am, 119, 719, 10.1121/1.2151799 · DOI
  36. CY Lee, 2010, Perception of musical pitch and lexical tones by Mandarin-speaking musicians, J Acoust Soc Am, 127, 481, 10.1121/1.3266683 · DOI
  37. DJ Levitin, 2005, Absolute pitch: Perception, coding, and controversies, Trends Cogn Sci, 9, 26, 10.1016/j.tics.2004.11.007 · DOI
  38. Y Nan, 2010, Congenital amusia in speakers of a tone language: Association with lexical tone agnosia, Brain, 133, 2635, 10.1093/brain/awq178 · DOI
  39. PC Wong, 2012, Effects of culture on musical pitch perception, PloS One, 7, e33424, 10.1371/journal.pone.0033424 · DOI
  40. RJ Giuliano, 2011, Native experience with a tone language enhances pitch discrimination and the timing of neural responses to pitch change, Frontiers in psychology, 2, 146, 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00146 · DOI
  41. PQ Pfordresher, 2009, Enhanced production and perception of musical pitch in tone language speakers, Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 71, 1385, 10.3758/APP.71.6.1385 · DOI
  42. T Bent, 2006, The influence of linguistic experience on the cognitive processing of pitch in speech and nonspeech sounds, J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform, 32, 97, 10.1037/0096-1523.32.1.97 · DOI
  43. JR Stagray, 1993, Differential sensitivity for frequency among speakers of a tone and a nontone language, Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 21, 144
  44. J Gandour, 1981, Perceptual dimensions of tone: Evidence from Cantonese, Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 9, 20
  45. E Khouw, 2007, Perceptual correlates of Cantonese tones, Journal of Phonetics, 35, 104, 10.1016/j.wocn.2005.10.003 · DOI
  46. G Peng, 2006, Temporal and tonal aspects of Chinese syllables: A corpus-based comparitive study of Mandarin and Catonese, Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 34, 134
  47. AL Francis, 2008, Perceptual learning of Cantonese lexical tones by tone and non-tone language speakers, Journal of Phonetics, 36, 268, 10.1016/j.wocn.2007.06.005 · DOI · Paper page
  48. PC Wong, 2007, Learning pitch patterns in lexical identification by native English-speaking adults, Appl Psycholinguist, 28, 565, 10.1017/S0142716407070312 · DOI
  49. P Li, 2006, Language history questionnaire: A web-based interface for bilingual research, Behavioral Research Methods, 38, 202, 10.3758/BF03192770 · DOI
  50. A Cooper, 2012, The influence of linguistic and musical experience on Cantonese word learning, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 131, 4756, 10.1121/1.4714355 · DOI
  51. RC Oldfield, 1971, The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory, Neuropsychologia, 9, 97, 10.1016/0028-3932(71)90067-4 · DOI · Paper page
  52. Corsi PM (1972) Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain (Ph.D. Thesis, McGill University).
  53. C Micheyl, 2006, Influence of musical and psychoacoustical training on pitch discrimination, Hear Res, 219, 36, 10.1016/j.heares.2006.05.004 · DOI
  54. H Levitt, 1971, Transformed up-down methods in psychoacoustics, J Acoust Soc Am, 49, 467, 10.1121/1.1912375 · DOI
  55. IJ Deary, 1995, Auditory inspection time and intelligence: What is the direction of causation?, Dev Psychol, 31, 237, 10.1037/0012-1649.31.2.237 · DOI
  56. EG Schellenberg, 2009, Music lessons, pitch processing, and g, Psychol Music, 38, 209, 10.1177/0305735609339473 · DOI
  57. FA Russo, 2012, Age-related difference in melodic pitch perception is probably mediated by temporal processing: empirical and computational evidence, Ear Hear, 32, 177, 10.1097/AUD.0b013e318233acee · DOI
  58. WR Steinke, 1997, Dissociation of musical tonality and pitch memory from nonmusical cognitive abilities, Can J Exp Psychol, 51, 316, 10.1037/1196-1961.51.4.316 · DOI
  59. K Schulze, 2012, Working memory for tonal and atonal sequences during a forward and a backward recognition task, Music Percept, 29, 255, 10.1525/mp.2012.29.3.255 · DOI
  60. JV Bradley, 1958, Complete counterbalancing of immediate sequential effects in a Latin square design, Journal of the American Statisical Association, 53, 525, 10.1080/01621459.1958.10501456 · DOI · Paper page
  61. GEP Box, 1964, An analysis of transformations, J Roy Stat Soc B, 26, 211, 10.1111/j.2517-6161.1964.tb00553.x · DOI
  62. Johnson RA, Wichern DW (2007) Applied multivariate statistical analysis. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. · DOI
  63. S Moreno, 2011, Effect of music training on promoting preliteracy skills: Preliminary causal evidence, Music Percept, 29, 165, 10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.165 · DOI
  64. SP Bhagat, 2004, Evaluation of distortion products produced by the human auditory system, Hear Res, 193, 51, 10.1016/j.heares.2004.04.005 · DOI
  65. Alain C, Arnott SR (2000) Selectively attending to auditory objects. Front Biosci: 202-212. · DOI
  66. D Drayna, 2001, Genetic Correlates of Musical Pitch Recognition in Humans, Science, 291, 1969, 10.1126/science.291.5510.1969 · DOI
  67. KL Hyde, 2009, Musical training shapes structural brain development, J Neurosci, 29, 3019, 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5118-08.2009 · DOI
  68. RJ Ellis, 2012, Differentiating maturational and training influences on fMRI activation during music processing, Neuroimage, 60, 1902, 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.138 · DOI
  69. AA Schlegel, 2012, White matter structure changes as adults learn a second language, J Cogn Neurosci, 24, 1664, 10.1162/jocn_a_00240 · DOI
  70. EM George, 2011, Music training and working memory: An ERP study, Neuropsychologia, 49, 1083, 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.001 · DOI
  71. DL Strait, 2010, Musical experience shapes top-down auditory mechanisms: Evidence from masking and auditory attention performance, Hear Res, 261, 22, 10.1016/j.heares.2009.12.021 · DOI
  72. Hansen M, Walllentin M, Vuust P (2012) Working memory and musical competence of musicians and non-musicians. Pyschology of Music doi: 10.1177/0305735612452186. · DOI
  73. KJ Pallesen, 2010, Cognitive control in auditory working memory is enhanced in musicians, PLoS One, 5, e11120, 10.1371/journal.pone.0011120 · DOI
  74. S Moreno, 2010, Conflict resolution in sentence processing by bilinguals, J Neurolinguistics, 23, 564, 10.1016/j.jneuroling.2010.05.002 · DOI
  75. DL Strait, 2009, Musical experience and neural efficiency: Effects of training on subcortical processing of vocal expressions of emotion, Eur J Neurosci, 29, 661, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06617.x · DOI
  76. GM Bidelman, 2011, Enhanced brainstem encoding predicts musicians’ perceptual advantages with pitch, Eur J Neurosci, 33, 530, 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07527.x · DOI
  77. EG Schellenberg, 2004, Music lessons enhance IQ, Psychological Science, 15, 511, 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00711.x · DOI · Paper page
  78. R Milovanov, 2011, The Interplay between Musical and Linguistic Aptitudes: A Review, Frontiers in psychology, 2, 321, 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00321 · DOI
  79. K Schulze, 2012, Working memory for speech and music, Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1252, 229, 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06447.x · DOI
  80. RJ Zatorre, 2012, Musical melody and speech intonation: Singing a different tune, PLoS Biol, 10, e1001372, 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001372 · DOI
  81. Y Benjamini, 1995, Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 57, 289, 10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x · DOI · Paper page
  82. RD Cook, 1979, Influential observations in linear regression, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74, 169, 10.1080/01621459.1979.10481634 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Metadata

Authors
Bidelman, G. M., Hutka, S., & Moreno, S.
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2013-04-02
Volume
8
Issue
4
Pages
e60676
ISSN
1932-6203
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0060676
PMC
PMC3614545
Cited by
235
References
4
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (unspecified)

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review