CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 3Advanced Cellulose Research StudiesLignin and Wood ChemistryNatural Fiber Reinforced Composites

Assessing the impact of chemo-mechanical and soxhlet extraction techniques on cellulose nanofiber characteristics

Open access
Zahid, Muhammad Usman, Zahid, Hifsa, Asghar, Muhammad Usama, Kayani, Waqas Khan, Rasheed, Aamir, Liaqat, Faroha, Muneer, Faraz, Rasheed, Faiza·2025·PLOS One
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0337323PMC PMC12680184
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The extraction of cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) from lignocellulosic biomass provides a sustainable alternative to synthetic materials due to their biodegradability, mechanical strength, and environmental compatibility. However, conventional extraction methods are often affected by high chemical consumption, energy intensity, and limited scalability. This study presents a comparative and optimized approach for the sustainable extraction of CNFs using two distinct methods, including chemo-mechanical treatment and Soxhlet extraction, applied to sugarcane bagasse and eucalyptus bark. Unlike previous studies, this work systematically compares both methods under controlled conditions to evaluate their efficiency, fiber integrity, and environmental impact. The extracted CNFs were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and zeta potential analysis. The FTIR spectra confirmed the presence of C–O–C fundamental vibrational stretching of cellulose and effective removal of non-cellulosic components such as lignin and hemicellulose. XRD results displayed the moderate crystalline nature of the extracted cellulose, with variation in intensity attributed to extraction technique and biomass type. Zeta potential analysis showed that CNFs extracted from eucalyptus bark via Soxhlet extraction exhibited superior colloidal stability (−32.5 mV), while those from sugarcane bagasse through chemo-mechanical treatment showed lower stability (−15.3 mV). These findings offer new insights into the method-material interaction and highlight the Soxhlet extraction route as more effective in producing stable, high-purity nanofibers. The protocols can be vital in reducing production costs and chemical utilization, enhancing material performance, and enabling large-scale application in packaging and biomedical industries.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0337323

Cites

1 of 1 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 59

  1. [1]Kobayashi T, Nakajima L. Sustainable development goals for advanced materials provided by industrial wastes and biomass sources. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. 2021; 28: 100439. doi: 10.1016/j.cogsc.2020.100439 · DOI
  2. [2]Zahid MU, Khan MA, Ahmad U, Alismail HA, Hussain SJ, Khan MI, et al. A Comparative Study of PEGylated Cobalt Oxide Nanoparticles (Co3O4-NPs) and Cobalt Sulfide Nanoparticles (Co9S8-NPs) for Biological and Photocatalytic Applications. BioNanoSci. 2024; 14(2): 643– 60. doi: 10.1007/s12668-024-01322-2 · DOI
  3. [3]Ahmad U, Khan MA, Zahid MU, Alarjani KM, Gawwad MRA, Hussain SJ, et al. Effect of surface capping on the biological properties of calcium oxide nanoparticles (CaO-NPs). Chem Pap. 2024; 78(8): 4971– 90. doi: 10.1007/s11696-024-03446-x · DOI
  4. [4]Haseeb HA, Khan MA, Rasheed H, Zahid MU, Doan TD, Siddique MAR, et al. Polygonum bistorta Linn. as a green source for synthesis of biocompatible selenium nanoparticles with potent antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Biometals. 2024; 37(6): 1511– 27. doi: 10.1007/s10534-024-00622-0 39127845 · DOI
  5. [5]Asem M, Noraini Jimat D, Huda Syazwani Jafri N, Mohd Fazli Wan Nawawi W, Fadhillah Mohamed Azmin N, Firdaus Abd Wahab M. Entangled cellulose nanofibers produced from sugarcane bagasse via alkaline treatment, mild acid hydrolysis assisted with ultrasonication. Journal of King Saud University - Engineering Sciences. 2023; 35(1): 24– 31. doi: 10.1016/j.jksues.2021.03.003 · DOI
  6. [6]Khan MA, Ahmed M, Abu-Hussien SH, Zahid MU, Alharbi BF. Green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3-NPs) from Citrus Limetta agrowaste for biological and photocatalytic applications. Sci Rep. 2025; 15(1): 33107. doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-17750-3 41006532 PMC12474992 · DOI
  7. [7]Gillani SA ul H, Zahid MU, Ali Z, Zafar M, Khan MA, Talha NTB, et al. The Distinct Biological Properties of Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) and Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide (CTAB)-Capped Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles (CeO2-NPs). Plasmonics. 2025; 20(9): 7293– 313. doi: 10.1007/s11468-024-02757-9 · DOI
  8. [8]Tariq H, Zahid MU, Qadeer B, Alharbi AM, Aljuaid A, Jambi K, et al. Pharmacological properties of Bergenia ciliata synthesized green zinc sulfide nanoparticles (ZnS-NPs) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs). Bioprocess Biosyst Eng. 2025; 48(12): 2017– 43. doi: 10.1007/s00449-025-03225-2 40855027 · DOI
  9. [9]Qadeer B, Khan MA, Tariq H, Zahid MU, Alismail HAA, Hussain SJ, et al. PEGylation of silver nanoparticles via Berginia Ciliata aqueous extract for biological applications. emergent mater. 2024; 7(4): 1657– 73. doi: 10.1007/s42247-024-00727-9 · DOI
  10. [10]Ang S, Haritos V, Batchelor W. Cellulose nanofibers from recycled and virgin wood pulp: A comparative study of fiber development. Carbohydr Polym. 2020; 234: 115900. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.115900 32070520 · DOI
  11. [11]Freitas LC, Barbosa JR, da Costa ALC, Bezerra FWF, Pinto RHH, Carvalho Junior RN de. From waste to sustainable industry: How can agro-industrial wastes help in the development of new products? Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2021; 169: 105466. doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105466 · DOI
  12. [12]Angouria-Tsorochidou E, Teigiserova DA, Thomsen M. Limits to circular bioeconomy in the transition towards decentralized biowaste management systems. Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2021; 164: 105207. doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105207 · DOI
  13. [13]Pennells J, Godwin ID, Amiralian N, Martin DJ. Trends in the production of cellulose nanofibers from non-wood sources. Cellulose. 2019; 27(2): 575– 93. doi: 10.1007/s10570-019-02828-9 · DOI
  14. [14]Badgar K, Abdalla N, El-Ramady H, Prokisch J. Sustainable Applications of Nanofibers in Agriculture and Water Treatment: A Review. Sustainability. 2022; 14(1): 464. doi: 10.3390/su14010464 · DOI
  15. [15]Nadeem H, Athar M, Dehghani M, Garnier G, Batchelor W. Recent advancements, trends, fundamental challenges and opportunities in spray deposited cellulose nanofibril films for packaging applications. Sci Total Environ. 2022; 836: 155654. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155654 35508247 · DOI
  16. [16]Abdul Khalil HPS, Adnan AS, Yahya EB, Olaiya NG, Safrida S, Hossain MS, et al. A Review on Plant Cellulose Nanofibre-Based Aerogels for Biomedical Applications. Polymers (Basel). 2020; 12(8): 1759. doi: 10.3390/polym12081759 32781602 PMC7465206 · DOI
  17. [17]Lamm ME, Li K, Qian J, Wang L, Lavoine N, Newman R, et al. Recent Advances in Functional Materials through Cellulose Nanofiber Templating. Adv Mater. 2021; 33(12):e2005538. doi: 10.1002/adma.202005538 33565173 · DOI
  18. [18]Sepahvand S, Ashori A, Jonoobi M. Application of cellulose nanofiber as a promising air filter for adsorbing particulate matter and carbon dioxide. Int J Biol Macromol. 2023; 244: 125344. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.125344 37327938 · DOI
  19. [19]Carter N, Grant I, Dewey M, Bourque M, Neivandt DJ. Production and Characterization of Cellulose Nanofiber Slurries and Sheets for Biomedical Applications. Front Nanotechnol. 2021; 3. doi: 10.3389/fnano.2021.729743 · DOI
  20. [20]Haroni S, Zaki Dizaji H, Bahrami H, González Alriols M. Sustainable production of cellulose nanofiber from sugarcane trash: A quality and life cycle assessment. Industrial Crops and Products. 2021; 173: 114084. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.114084 · DOI
  21. [21]Nagarajan KJ, Ramanujam NR, Sanjay MR, Siengchin S, Surya Rajan B, Sathick Basha K, et al. A comprehensive review on cellulose nanocrystals and cellulose nanofibers: Pretreatment, preparation, and characterization. Polymer Composites. 2021; 42(4): 1588– 630. doi: 10.1002/pc.25929 · DOI
  22. [22]Liu S, Low Z, Xie Z, Wang H. TEMPO‐Oxidized Cellulose Nanofibers: A Renewable Nanomaterial for Environmental and Energy Applications. Adv Materials Technologies. 2021; 6(7). doi: 10.1002/admt.202001180 · DOI
  23. [23]Michl TD, Barz J, Giles C, Haupt M, Henze JH, Mayer J, et al. Plasma Polymerization of TEMPO Yields Coatings Containing Stable Nitroxide Radicals for Controlling Interactions with Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2018; 1(12): 6587– 95. doi: 10.1021/acsanm.8b01314 · DOI
  24. [24]El-Sayed NS, Baseer RA, Sheha E, Kamel S, Hameed TA. Efficient fabrication of flexible electrodes based on cellulose nanofiber-reinforced polyaniline and nanobiochar for Mg-ion battery. Int J Biol Macromol. 2025; 322(Pt 4): 146938. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.146938 40840756 · DOI
  25. [25]El-Sayed NS, Dawwam GE, Helmy NM, Hesemann P, Kamel S. Encapsulation of ZnO-NPs, tannic acid, and β-carotene into cellulose coated polydopamine bionanoplatform: Fabrication, characterization, antimicrobial, and in vitro wound healing evaluation. Int J Biol Macromol. 2025; 320(Pt 3): 145928. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.145928 40659279 · DOI
  26. [26]El-Sayed NS, Tolba E, Salama A. Valorization of Sugarcane Bagasse into Cellulose Nanofiber Containing Phosphate Groups: A New Scaffold for in Vitro Calcium Phosphate Mineralization. Chemistry Africa. 2025; 8(7): 3011– 21. doi: 10.1007/s42250-025-01235-x · DOI
  27. [27]Lahiri D, Nag M, Dutta B, Dey A, Sarkar T, Pati S, et al. Bacterial Cellulose: Production, Characterization, and Application as Antimicrobial Agent. IJMS. 2021; 22(23): 12984. doi: 10.3390/ijms222312984 34884787 PMC8657668 · DOI
  28. [28]Morán JI, Alvarez VA, Cyras VP, Vázquez A. Extraction of cellulose and preparation of nanocellulose from sisal fibers. Cellulose. 2007; 15(1): 149– 59. doi: 10.1007/s10570-007-9145-9 · DOI
  29. [29]Norrrahim MNF, Ariffin H, Yasim-Anuar TAT, Hassan MA, Ibrahim NA, Yunus WMZW, et al. Performance Evaluation of Cellulose Nanofiber with Residual Hemicellulose as a Nanofiller in Polypropylene-Based Nanocomposite. Polymers (Basel). 2021; 13(7): 1064. doi: 10.3390/polym13071064 33800573 PMC8037030 · DOI
  30. [30]de Moraes Barbosa A, Rebes Zilliani R, Tiritan CS, Maia Souza G, de Almeida Silva M. Energy conversion efficiency in sugarcane cultivars as a function of production environments in Brazil. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2021; 150: 111500. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111500 · DOI
  31. [31]Lima AR, Cristofoli NL, Rosa da Costa AM, Saraiva JA, Vieira MC. Comparative study of the production of cellulose nanofibers from agro-industrial waste streams of Salicornia ramosissima by acid and enzymatic treatment. Food and Bioproducts Processing. 2023; 137: 214– 25. doi: 10.1016/j.fbp.2022.11.012 · DOI
  32. [32]Cebreiros F, Sánchez G, Ferrari MD, Lareo C. Integrating the coproduction of cellulose nanofibers and biobutanol from eucalyptus pulp using an environmentally friendly process. Industrial Crops and Products. 2022; 188: 115732. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115732 · DOI
  33. [33]Giannotas G, Kamperidou V, Barboutis I. Tree bark utilization in insulating bio‐aggregates: a review. Biofuels Bioprod Bioref. 2021; 15(6): 1989– 99. doi: 10.1002/bbb.2291 · DOI
  34. [34]Kumar R, Kumari S, Rai B, Kumar R, Sirohi S, Kumar G. A Facile Chemical Approach to Isolate Cellulose Nanofibers from Jute Fibers. J Polym Environ. 2020; 28(10): 2761– 70. doi: 10.1007/s10924-020-01808-6 · DOI
  35. [35]Chen W, Yu H, Liu Y, Hai Y, Zhang M, Chen P. Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from four plant cellulose fibers using a chemical-ultrasonic process. Cellulose. 2011; 18(2): 433– 42. doi: 10.1007/s10570-011-9497-z · DOI · Paper page
  36. [36]Saito Y, Okada K, Endo T, Sakakibara K. Highly surface-selective nitration of cellulose nanofibers under mildly acidic reaction conditions. Cellulose. 2023; 30(16): 10083– 95. doi: 10.1007/s10570-023-05488-y · DOI
  37. [37]Li Y, Luo K, Zhu Y, Chen T, Chen Z, Yang J, et al. Extraction, preparation and characterization of cellulose nanofibers from Coix lacryma-jobi L. straw. Cellulose. 2025; 32(12): 7113– 30. doi: 10.1007/s10570-025-06656-y · DOI
  38. [38]Liu Y, Chen B, Lv Y, Ye X, Lin C, Liu M. Insight into the performance of lignin-containing cellulose nanofibers (LCNFs) via lignin content regulation by p-toluenesulfonic acid delignification. Cellulose. 2022; 29(4): 2273– 87. doi: 10.1007/s10570-022-04432-w · DOI
  39. [39]Kaffashsaie E, Yousefi H, Nishino T, Matsumoto T, Mashkour M, Madhoushi M, et al. Direct conversion of raw wood to TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers. Carbohydr Polym. 2021; 262: 117938. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117938 33838815 · DOI
  40. [40]Sharma P, Hicks S, Ruggiero AR, Sharma SK, Hsiao BS, Springstead J. Extraction and analysis of carboxycellulose nanofibers from virgin plant fibers using updated TEMPO-mediated oxidation. Cellulose. 2024; 32(2): 887– 902. doi: 10.1007/s10570-024-06328-3 · DOI
  41. [41]Xu H, Sanchez-Salvador JL, Balea A, Blanco A, Negro C. Optimization of reagent consumption in TEMPO-mediated oxidation of Eucalyptus cellulose to obtain cellulose nanofibers. Cellulose. 2022; 29(12): 6611– 27. doi: 10.1007/s10570-022-04672-w · DOI
  42. [42]Baraka F, Robles E, Labidi J. Microwave-assisted esterification of bleached and unbleached cellulose nanofibers. Industrial Crops and Products. 2023; 191: 115970. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115970 · DOI
  43. [43]Sadeghi-Shapourabadi M, Elkoun S, Robert M. Microwave-Assisted Chemical Purification and Ultrasonication for Extraction of Nano-Fibrillated Cellulose from Potato Peel Waste. Macromol. 2023; 3(4): 766– 81. doi: 10.3390/macromol3040044 · DOI
  44. [44]Hassan ML, Berglund L, Abou Elseoud WS, Hassan EA, Oksman K. Effect of pectin extraction method on properties of cellulose nanofibers isolated from sugar beet pulp. Cellulose. 2021; 28(17): 10905– 20. doi: 10.1007/s10570-021-04223-9 · DOI
  45. [45]Márquez-Ríos E, Robles-García MÁ, Rodríguez-Félix F, Aguilar-López JA, Reynoso-Marín FJ, Tapia-Hernández JA, et al. Effect of Ionic Liquids in the Elaboration of Nanofibers of Cellulose Bagasse from Agave tequilana Weber var. azul by Electrospinning Technique. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2022; 12(16): 2819. doi: 10.3390/nano12162819 36014684 PMC9412263 · DOI
  46. [46]Nasution H, Yahya EB, Abdul Khalil HPS, Shaah MA, Suriani AB, Mohamed A, et al. Extraction and Isolation of Cellulose Nanofibers from Carpet Wastes Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Approach. Polymers (Basel). 2022; 14(2): 326. doi: 10.3390/polym14020326 35054732 PMC8780019 · DOI
  47. [47]Li X, Tang Z, Sun Z, Simonsen J, Luo Z, Li X, et al. Chemical and Enzymatic Fiber Modification to Enhance the Mechanical Properties of CMC Composite Films. Polymers (Basel). 2022; 14(19): 4127. doi: 10.3390/polym14194127 36236075 PMC9573683 · DOI
  48. [48]Singh M, Pahal V, Ahuja D. Isolation and characterization of microfibrillated cellulose and nanofibrillated cellulose with “biomechanical hotspots”. Carbohydr Polym. 2020; 234: 115827. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.115827 32070555 · DOI
  49. [49]Besbes I, Alila S, Boufi S. Nanofibrillated cellulose from TEMPO-oxidized eucalyptus fibres: Effect of the carboxyl content. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2011; 84(3): 975– 83. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.12.052 · DOI
  50. [50]Shahi N, Min B, Sapkota B, Rangari VK. Eco-Friendly Cellulose Nanofiber Extraction from Sugarcane Bagasse and Film Fabrication. Sustainability. 2020; 12(15): 6015. doi: 10.3390/su12156015 · DOI
  51. [51]Kumar A, Singh Negi Y, Choudhary V, Kant Bhardwaj N. Characterization of Cellulose Nanocrystals Produced by Acid-Hydrolysis from Sugarcane Bagasse as Agro-Waste. JMPC. 2020; 2(1): 1– 8. doi: 10.12691/jmpc-2-1-1 · DOI
  52. [52]Foroushani MY, Foroushani AY, Yarahmadi H. Analysis of mechanical techniques in extracting cellulose fibers from sugarcane bagasse. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. 2025. doi: 10.1007/s13399-025-06596-4 · DOI
  53. [53]Barhoum A, Jeevanandam J, Rastogi A, Samyn P, Boluk Y, Dufresne A, et al. Plant celluloses, hemicelluloses, lignins, and volatile oils for the synthesis of nanoparticles and nanostructured materials. Nanoscale. 2020; 12(45): 22845– 90. doi: 10.1039/d0nr04795c 33185217 · DOI
  54. [54]Siti Syazwani N, Ervina Efzan MN, Kok CK, Nurhidayatullaili MJ. Analysis on extracted jute cellulose nanofibers by Fourier transform infrared and X-Ray diffraction. Journal of Building Engineering. 2022; 48: 103744. doi: 10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103744 · DOI
  55. [55]Feng Y-H, Cheng T-Y, Yang W-G, Ma P-T, He H-Z, Yin X-C, et al. Characteristics and environmentally friendly extraction of cellulose nanofibrils from sugarcane bagasse. Industrial Crops and Products. 2018; 111: 285– 91. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.10.041 · DOI
  56. [56]Sun XF, Xu F, Sun RC, Fowler P, Baird MS. Characteristics of degraded cellulose obtained from steam-exploded wheat straw. Carbohydr Res. 2005; 340(1): 97– 106. doi: 10.1016/j.carres.2004.10.022 15620672 · DOI
  57. [57]Rani A, Monga S, Bansal M, Sharma A. Bionanocomposites reinforced with cellulose nanofibers derived from sugarcane bagasse. Polymer Composites. 2016; 39(S1). doi: 10.1002/pc.24112 · DOI
  58. [58]Soni B, Hassan EB, Mahmoud B. Chemical isolation and characterization of different cellulose nanofibers from cotton stalks. Carbohydr Polym. 2015; 134: 581– 9. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.08.031 26428161 · DOI
  59. [59]Carneiro Pessan C, Silva Bernardes J, Bettini SHP, Leite ER. Oxidized cellulose nanofibers from sugarcane bagasse obtained by microfluidization: Morphology and rheological behavior. Carbohydr Polym. 2023; 304: 120505. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120505 36641171 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Zahid, M. U., Zahid, H., Asghar, M. U., Kayani, W. K., Rasheed, A., Liaqat, F., Muneer, F., & Rasheed, F.
Affiliations
  • Quaid-i-Azam University (PK)
  • University of Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (PK)
  • Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SE)
Corresponding author
  • Muneer, Faraz
  • Rasheed, Faiza
ORCID
Venue
PLOS One
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2025-12-05
Volume
20
Issue
12
Pages
e0337323
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0337323
PMC
PMC12680184
OpenAlex
W4417091361
Cited by
3
References
1
Citations by year
2026: 3
FWCI
0.63
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Epsilon Open Archive (Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet biblioteket (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences)) (acceptedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Higher Education Commision, Pakistan (NRPU16433)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Biomaterials › Advanced Cellulose Research Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Lignin and Wood Chemistry
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites
Keywords
cellulose nanofibers, Soxhlet extraction, lignocellulosic biomass, sugarcane bagasse, eucalyptus bark, cellulose purity, lignin and hemicellulose removal, cellulose crystallinity, colloidal stability, zeta potential
MeSH terms
Cellulose, Eucalyptus, Microscopy, Electron, Scanning, X-Ray Diffraction, Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared, Biomass, Plant Bark, Saccharum, Nanofibers

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review