Women in China's Long Twentieth Century

“The construction of female homosexual shared this view but female homosexuality were commonly understood as a reaction to abuse or neglect by men or as a compensatory sex in the absence of men (Ruan and Bullough, 1992: 221–225; Hershatter, 2007: 41).”

“Equity was promoted in both productive and reproductive spheres through policies targeting gender discrimination, gerontocratic control and elite privilege (Phạm 1998; Hershatter 2007).”

“I concur with Hershatter (2007) that nuances among Chinese women in these different regions need to be recognized in Chinese cultural studies.”

“…century yoked the weakness of China, subject to the depredations of the West, to its unproductive, cloistered, and uneducated women, and “the linkage he made between women, the health of the civilization, and the viability of the state was taken up enthusiastically by others” (Hershatter 2007, 79).”

“Nevertheless, gender inequality embedded in the private sphere in the form of gender division of labour in housework and care duties was never addressed by socialist campaigns (Evans, 2008:104; Hershatter, 2007:62).”

“If Hong Kong’s China Wind pop is to feminize, to intervene by rewriting Chinese culture with a female voice, to use gender as a means to trouble dominant narratives [Hershatter 2007: 108], what does this say?”

“Hershatter (2007) notes that ‘‘The government argued that if drastic steps were not taken to limit fertility, the needs of a burgeoning population would not be met, national development strategy would be undermined, and terrible suffering would result (Potter 1985; Croll 1985, Tien 1985, 1987;…”

“For example, reformist scholars such as Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei stressed women’s education and the liberation of women from footbinding as a way to strengthen Chinese women and the Chinese nation (Hershatter, 2007; Judge, 2008; Ko, 2005; Ono, 1989; Zhang, 2000).”

“This male-dominated pattern was continued into the first half of the twentieth century and had been seen an essential obstacle preventing China from achieving modernity (Hershatter, 2007).”

“In this context, the emergence of a transnational intimate space (Hershatter 2007; Farrer 2013) raises significant questions about the extent to which filial piety may be renegotiated, acquire news meanings, and become attached to new forms of everyday practice in metropolitan spaces.”

“Of course, it is important not to overstate the CCP’s achievements (Hershatter 2007, pp. 5, 8, 60 4).”

“To this end, party publications from the early 1940s often featured images of the ‘labour heroine’, working in agriculture or textiles, shown with a strong body and regular, plain facial features set in a determined expression, all of which conveyed to the viewer qualities of perseverance and patriotism (Hershatter, 2…”

“With modernity and globalization, feminism has gradually grown in China, confronting such traditional patriarchal values (Hershatter, 2007; Leung, 2003).”

“I spent much of the first decade of this millennium surveying only one portion of this material, on women and China’s long twentieth century, first for a state-of-the-field essay in the Journal of Asian Studies (Hershatter 2004) and then for a freestanding volume (Hershatter 2007).”

“Chinese feminism follow a single trajectory: what is a woman and what kind of womanhood is desired have been subject to constant debates and ideological contestations in modern Chinese history (Evans 1997; Hershatter 2007; Barlow 2006; Edwards 2008).”

“I agree with Hershatter’s (2007) advice that nuances among Chinese women need to be recognized in Chinese cultural studies.”

“It also redefined women’s normative work around gendered attributes of care, emotional, and linguistic capacities (Wang 2003, Hershatter 2007).”

“Women in China have experienced severe gender inequality as they are marginalized in the labor market and denied rights such as land possession and household ownership (Hershatter, 2007; Ji et al., 2017; Li &Wu, 2011; Li et al., 2008).”

“…and thereafter shifted its focus from the transformative power of the Chinese revolution to the more localized, segmented, and conflicting topics that originated out of the country’s transformation from a socialist collective to a neoliberal consumer economy (Bailey, 2012; Hershatter, 2007).”

“Downloaded from https://read.dukeupress.edu/easts/article-pdf/2/3/401/406699/12280_2008_Article_9052.pdf by guest on 06 November 2019 To introduce the theory of gynandromorphism, Zhu begins with Morgan and his students: Among the fruit flies they investigated, [Thomas] Morgan and his students unexpectedly discovered c…”

“…of love, but rather a reversal of love, just 24 Not coincidentally, as Hershatter points out, although in 1936 “a draft constitution gave women the right to vote […] this provision was not implemented until 1947” – exactly the same year when the Chuanqi collection was revised (Hershatter 2007, 94).”

“From the late Qing dynasty onwards, an increasing number of women began to study abroad, and their overseas experiences gave them insight into Western feminism and changes in the status of women around the world (Hershatter, 2007, p. 55).”

“…supposed cultural backwardness vis-à-vis Germany’s own superiority (for the status of women at the beginning of the twentieth century in China, see Hershatter, 2007, pp. 36–43; Tran, 2015).15 Even if there was no explicit prohibition against marrying a Chinese partner, the stigma against…”

“In essence, the Maoist state scarcely challenged patriarchy because, as Hershatter (2007) noted, Maoist gender ideologies focused on the sameness between men and women rather than women ’ s social expectations and circumstances per se.”

“As a forceful manifestation of misogyny, the behaviour of men in harassment and assault occurs frequently in Chinese rural migrant women ’ s lives within industrial workplaces and personal domains (Hershatter, 2007; Jacka, 2005).”

“However, during periods of economic slowdown, women were regularly reminded that their primary role was within the family sphere: as mother, wife, and housewife (Hershatter, 2007, p. 60).”

“…Review Press); Gail Hershatter & Wang Zheng (2008) Chinese History: a useful category of gender analysis, American Historical Review, 113 (5), pp. 1404–1421; Gail Hershatter (2007)Women in China’s Long Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press); Ермаков Александр Михайлович.”

“By 1958, the percentage of rural women involved in agricultural production reached 90% (Hershatter, 2007).”

“While adult peasant men were drafted into the Red Army, fighting on the front, women became urgently needed in both production and the administration of base areas (Hershatter, 2007, p. 59).”

“…of love, but rather a reversal of love, just 24 Not coincidentally, as Hershatter points out, although in 1936 “a draft constitution gave women the right to vote […] this provision was not implemented until 1947” – exactly the same year when the Chuanqi collection was revised (Hershatter 2007, 94).”

“What are the relationships between these public and popular cultural manifestations of the country’s neoliberal consumerist mechanisms and local histories 6See Evans 1997, 2008; Farrer 2002; Gilmartin et al. 1994; Hershatter 2007; Hong Fincher 2014; Jeffreys 2006; Yang 1999.”

“It has been marked as the beginning of China’s modernization and liberalization (e.g., Barlow et al., 2008; Hershatter, 2007; Ko, 2005; Shue, 2018), and it is still very common nowadays to hear elderly Chinese people recall this time as China’s “transition era” and/or the “golden age.””

“…of the collective economy, however, forgetting that it was the state which, despite promoting gender equality, at the same time promoted gendered job assignments, dissuading women from technical and skilled positions and pushing them towards cleaning and assistance services (Hershatter, 2007).”

“The literature on Chinese families emphasises the power of the patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal structures and ideologies over family members, particularly women and younger generations (Wolf, 1972; Lavely, 1991; Evans, 1997; Hershatter, 2007).”

“See Hershatter 2007, 61.”

“…lower-paying sectors that could be regarded as an extension of the gendered domestic division of labour; they have less job mobility than men; they were underrepresented in more powerful positions and the gendered disparities in payment have remained stable or even intensified (Hershatter, 2007).”

“This exemplifies the intercon-nectedness of personal behaviors with social transformations, as Hershatter (2007, p. 85) argued when discussing the introduction of nationalist issues to female readers through periodicals.”