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Language of the Snakes: Prakrit, Sanskrit, and the Language Order of Premodern India

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Ollett, Andrew·2017·University of California Press eBooks
DOI 10.1525/luminos.37
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Abstract

Language of the Snakes traces the history of the Prakrit language as a literary phenomenon, starting from its cultivation in courts of the Deccan in the first centuries of the common era. Although little studied today, Prakrit was an important vector of the kāvya movement and once joined Sanskrit at the apex of classical Indian literary culture. The opposition between Prakrit and Sanskrit was at the center of an enduring “language order” in India, a set of ways of thinking about, naming, classifying, representing, and ultimately using languages. As a language of classical literature that nevertheless retained its associations with more demotic language practices, Prakrit both embodies major cultural tensions—between high and low, transregional and regional, cosmopolitan and vernacular—and provides a unique perspective onto the history of literature and culture in South Asia. “Andrew Ollett’s book is one of those scholarly breakthroughs that happen, with luck, once or twice in a generation. It reveals the richness of Prakrit language and literary modes with a precision and depth of insight never seen before.” DAVID SHULMAN, Professor Emeritus, Hebrew University “Ollett offers a brilliant, original, and thoroughly engaging investigation of the complex language order of premodern India. Bringing to the fore the less-studied role of the literary Prakrits, his work makes a major contribution to our understanding of the history of language and literature in early India and beyond.” R. P. GOLDMAN, Catherine and William L. Magistretti Distinguished Professor in Sanskrit and India Studies, University of California, Berkeley ANDREW OLLETT works on the literary and intellectual traditions of premodern India.

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Figure 1 . Figure 1. The Nāṇeghāṭ Cave in 2014 (photo by the author).
Figure 1 . Figure 1. The Nāṇeghāṭ Cave in 2014 (photo by the author).CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Figure 2 . Figure 2. Aśvamedha coin of Śrī Sātakarṇi and Nāganika (courtesy of Shailendra Bhandare).
Figure 2 . Figure 2. Aśvamedha coin of Śrī Sātakarṇi and Nāganika (courtesy of Shailendra Bhandare).CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Figure 3 . Figure 3. Sātakarṇi making a donation to Buddhist monks at Kanaganahalli (photo by the author, with the permission of the Archaeological Survey of India).
Figure 3 . Figure 3. Sātakarṇi making a donation to Buddhist monks at Kanaganahalli (photo by the author, with the permission of the Archaeological Survey of India).CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Figure 4 . Figure 4. The "Queen's Cave" at Nāsik (photo by the author).
Figure 4 . Figure 4. The "Queen's Cave" at Nāsik (photo by the author).CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF
Figure 5 . Figure 5. Fragmentary stela from Sannati with inscription commemorating Gautamīputra Śrī Sātakarṇi (from Sarma and Varaprasada Rao 1993).
Figure 5 . Figure 5. Fragmentary stela from Sannati with inscription commemorating Gautamīputra Śrī Sātakarṇi (from Sarma and Varaprasada Rao 1993).CC-BY-NC-ND · From the PDF

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  1. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa pillar inscriptions of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 6. Vogel 1929-1930: 15-21; Sircar 98-100; Andhra, pp. 137-151; Tsu.Naga.1-17. These pillars belong to the mahācaitya at Nāgārjunakoṇḍa. The donors include Cātiśrī, sister of Cāntamūla and mother-in-law of Vīrapuruṣadatta; Aḍavi-Cātaśrī, daughter of Cāntamūla; Cula-Cātiśrī, wife of a military officer; Rudradharabhaṭṭārikā, the daughter of a Mahārāja of Ujjayinī and queen of Vīrapuruṣadatta; Bappaśrī, a niece of Cāntamūla's and also a queen of Vīrapuruṣadatta; and Chaṭhiśrī, another niece of Cāntamūla's and queen of Vīrapuruṣadatta. One inscription (C2) mentions that Ānanda, who established the foundations of the mahācaitya, belonged to a community of teachers of the dīgha and majjhima (nikāyas) and the five mātukas. Ca. 246 ce.
  2. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 14. Vogel 1929-1930: 22-23; Sircar 101; Andhra, pp. 152-155; Tsu.Naga.41. Private donation of a stone maṇḍapa, for the benefit of the teachers of Tāmrapāṇi, who are said to have converted Kaśmīra, Gandhāra, Cīna, Cilāta, Tosali, Aparānta, Vaṅga, Vanavāsi, Yavana, Damila, Palura, and Tāmrapāṇi. Ca. 254 ce.
  3. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 15. Andhra, pp. 163-164 Tsu.Naga.21-22. Ca. 255 ce.
  4. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscriptions of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 18. Vogel 1929-1930: 21-22; Sircar 102; Andhra, pp. 151-152. Addition of a stone maṇḍapa to the Mahācaitya by Cātiśrī, sister of Cāntamūla and mother-in-law of Vīrapuruṣadatta, for the benefit of the Aparamahāvinaseliyas. Ca. 258 ce.
  5. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 18. Andhra, pp. 159-160; Tsu.Naga.18. Ca. 258 ce.
  6. Uppugundur inscription of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 19. Chhabra 1959-1960b; Andhra, pp. 183-184; Tsu.Uppu.1. Ca. 259 ce.
  7. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 20. Vogel 1931- 1932: 63-64; Sircar 1963-1964a: 1A; Andhra, p. 159 and pp. 168-169; Tsu.Naga.49. Memorial pillar of Cāntamūla, erected by royal women (who are listed). Sircar read vijaya and dated the inscription to 273 ce; the reading viṃsaya may be bet- ter. Ca. 260 ce.
  8. Jaggayyapeṭa inscription of the time of Vīrapuruṣadatta, year 20. Jag., p. 108; Andhra, pp. 180-181, Tsu.Jagg.1. Private donation of pillars. Ca. 260 ce.
  9. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscriptions of the time of Ehuvula Cāntamūla, year 2. Vogel 1929-1930: 23-24, 1931-1932: 62-63; Sircar 103. Andhra pp. 156-158, Tsu. Naga.42-43. Donation of a vihāra by Bhaṭṭidevā, a wife of Vīrapuruṣadatta and mother of Ehuvula Cāntamūla. One of the inscriptions (G2) uses double conso- nants relatively consistently. Ca. 267 ce.
  10. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Ehuvula Cāntamūla, year 8. Sircar 1963-1964a: 2A-B; Andhra, pp. 164-166, Tsu.Naga.53-54. Ca. 273 ce.
  11. Allūru inscription of the time of Ehuvula Cāntamūla, year 8. Srinivasan 1971a; Andhra, pp. 185-186; Tsu.Allu.2. Ca. 273 ce.
  12. Pātagaṇḍigūḍem plates of Ehuvula Cāntamūla. Ramachandra Murthy 1999; Falk 1999-2000; Andhra, pp. 191-193. Endowment of structures at the mahāvihāra. Ca. 265-290 ce.
  13. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Ehuvula Cāntamūla. Sircar 1963- 1964a: 1B; Andhra, pp. 156. Ca. 265-290 ce.
  14. Kārle inscription of Uṣavadāta. LL 1099; ICK 13; Sircar 61; Mirashi 39; Tsu. Karl.26. Ca. 70-78 ce. 100. Nāsik inscription of Uṣavadāta. LL 1131; ICN 10; Sircar 59; Mirashi 43; Tsu. Nasi.10. Records Uṣavadāta's excavation of a cave. Ca. 70-78 ce. 101. Nāsik inscription of Dakṣamitrā, wife of Uṣavadāta. LL 1134; ICN 13; Mirashi 41; Tsu.Nasi.13. Dakṣamitrā's donation of a cell. Ca. 70-78 ce. 102. Nāsik inscription of Uṣavadāta. LL 1135; ICN 14a; Mirashi 40; Tsu.Nasi.14. De- tails the religious patronage of Uṣavadāta. Ca. 70-78 ce. 103. Junnar inscription of the time of Nahapāna, year 46. LL 1174; Junnar 25; Sircar 62; Mirashi 44; Tsu.Junn.3. Records Ayyama's donation of a cistern. Ca. 78 ce. 104. Junāgaṛh inscription of Rudradāman, year 72 (Śaka). Kielhorn 1905-1906; LL 965; Sircar 67; Mirashi 51. Records the restoration of the embankments of Sudarśana lake after a flood, with a long praśasti of Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi Rudradāman. 150 ce. 105. Nāsik inscription of the time of Ābhīra Māḍharīputra Īśvarasena, year 9. LL 1137; ICN 15; Tsu.Nasi.16. The donor, Viṣṇudattā, is the daughter of a Śaka named Agnivarman. Mid-third century ce. 106. Kānherī inscription of the time of Māḍharīputra Svāmi Śakasena. ASWI-K 19; LL 1002; Gokhale 42; Tsu.Kanh.42. Names Hālaṇikā as the donor of the cave. Mid- third century ce. 107. Nāgārjunakoṇḍa inscription of the time of Vāsiṣṭhīputra Ābhīra Vasuṣeṇa, year 26 (reading of the year very uncertain). Sircar 1961-1962; Salomon 2013. Instal- lation of an image of Viṣṇu (aṣṭabhujasvāminaḥ) on Seṭagiri by Mahāgrāmika 2. Sarasvatīkaṇṭhābharaṇa 1.99 (ex. 133), p. 93 = Śṛṅgāraprakāśa 9.266, p. 507. अम्याररसया हव कइरो िहलवु ड्ढियालपमु िया हव । मण्ु क्क-मक्कडया हव हु िों हत िरी सप्पत्सं िया हव ॥ People like me are poets Just as much as Harivṛddha and Hāla. Don't we call frogs and monkeys hari, besides snakes and lions? 3. Karpūramañjarī pp. 9-10 (ed. Ghosh). The vidūṣaka complains about the ser- vant girl Vicakṣaṇā. हवदू षकथः । [सक्ोिम् ] तया उज्जु अं ज्जे व हकं र भण्णइ अम्यारं चे हडआ िररउड्ढ-रन्न्दउड्ढ- पोहटिस-ियाल-प्पिदीरं हप पु रदो सु कइ त्ति । िररउड्ढ . . . प्पिदीरं ] Konow lists many variants on these names, but the most significant is िरर-बम्त्सत्द्-ओडिीस-पयाहलतिअ-चं पअरयाअ-मलिसे िरयारं , read by witnesses STU. Vidūṣaka: [Angrily.Well, why don't you come right out and say it? That this servant girl of ours is a better poet than even Harivṛddha, Nandivṛddha, Poṭṭisa, and Hāla? CHAPTER
  15. Mīrzā Khān, Gift from India, 53-54: duyum parākirt . . . o madḥ-i mulūk o wuzarāʿ o akābir beshtar badīn zabān goyand. o ān zabān-i ʿālam ast, yaʿni ʿālam-i ki zīr zamīn ast. o ān-rā pātāl-bānī goyand . . . o nāg-bānī nīz nāmand . . . yaʿnī zabān-i ahl-i asfal us-sāfilīn o mārān ki zamīnīyān o suflīyānand. o ān murakkab ast az sahãskirt, ki sābiq maẕkūr shud, o bhākhā, ki baʿd az īn maẕkūr shawad. The translation here is based on Ziauddin's. 6. See the end of chapter 7. 7. Foucault 1994 [1966]: xv. 8. Quoted in Crowley 1996: 39.
  16. Linguistic areas are spaces in which genetically unrelated languages share grammati- cal features; see Emeneau 1956. 12. Mirror of Literature 1.32; see the discussion in chapter 5. 13. Kaviraj 1992; Pollock 2003, 2006a. Notes
  17. Seven Centuries, and the difficult problem of its date and authorship, is discussed in chapter 3.
  18. W175 in Seven Centuries (unless otherwise noted I cite verses from Weber's edi- tion of the text and using his numeration); Light on Suggestion, p. 16 (Kāvyamālā ed.); see
  19. See Abhinavagupta's commentary on Ānandavardhana's Light on Suggestion, pp. 84, 90-92 in the Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan translation; the Explanation of the Suggestion Verses by Ratnākara, who reproduces Abhinavagupta's notes (as noted by Masson and Pat- wardhan 1974); Dundas 1985: 17. Bhoja's discussion of the verse seems to show no awareness of the controversy generated by Ānandavardhana's Light.
  20. e, LVII B v. 7): yena pravarasenena dharmasetuṃ vivṛṇvatā (ed. vivṛṇvata) | paraḥ pravaraseno 'pi jitaḥ prākṛtasetukṛt ||: "He, called Pra- varasena because of his excellent army, produced a Bridge of Dharma, and thereby con- quered that other Pravarasena who merely produced a common bridge" (with a pun on both pravarasena-and prākṛtasetu-, both "a common bridge" and "the Bridge in Prakrit. " Prakrit in Java is discussed in chapter 6. 30. See the discussion in chapter 3. 31. See chapter 7.
  21. Daṇḍin calls power (ojas) the "essence of literary prose" (gadyasya jīvitam) in his Mirror of Literature 1.80. Treatise on Theater 16.105 reads: samāsavadbhir bahubhir vicitraiś ca padair yutam | sānurāgair udāraiś ca tad ojaḥ parikīrtyate ||. I follow Abhinavagupta's insightful commentary in my interpretation of this verse. I follow Amarasiṃha (ojo dīptau bale, 3.3.234) in translating ojas as "power, " where a more conventional translation might be "vigor"; the word is cognate with the word "august. " 21. Tieken 2006; see chapter 4.
  22. The inscriptions of Hāthībāḍā and Ghosuṇḍī in the early first century bce speak of the construction of a structure for worship of Saṃkarṣaṇa and Vāsudeva; see Salomon 1998: 87. 27. Tieken 2008: 371 n. 82. Compare the surprise of Ācārya (1982: 27) at Gautamī Balaśrī's eulogy of her son at Nāsik: yah sacmuc āścarya kī bāt hai ki svayaṃ ko 'ek brahmaṇa' aur 'khatiyadapamānamadana' kahne vāle tathā vaidik evaṃ bhāgavatdharm kā punaruddhār karne vāle sātavāhan nareśoṃ ne prākṛt ko rājbhāṣā kā gaurav pradhān kiyā ("It is really a matter of surprise that the Sātavāhana kings, who called themselves 'unique Brāhmaṇas' and 'destroyers of the pride and arrogance of the Kṣatriyas' and oversaw a resurgence of Vedic and Bhāgavata religion, made Prakrit into the major language of state"). 28. See Pollock 2006a: 39-50; see also the Vedic prohibition on writing in Aitareya Āraṇyaka 5.3.3, "he should not learn when he has eaten flesh, or seen blood, or a dead body, or done what is unlawful, or anointed (his eyes) or oiled or rubbed his body, or had himself shaved, or bathed, or has put on colour, or put on a wreath, or had intercourse, or written, or obliterated writing" (trans. Keith 1909: 301-302; thanks to Pashaura Singh for drawing my attention to this passage).
  23. Cribb 1992, 1998, 2000;
  24. taking as a representative sample the inscription that Vogel labels as C3 (of the Buddha): sidhaṃ namo bhagavato devarāja-sakatasa supabudha-bodhino savaṃñuno sava-satānukampakasa jita-rāga-dosa-moha-vipamutasa mahāgaṇi-vasabha-[gaṃ]dha- hathisa samma-sam[budh]asa dhātuvara-parigahitasa; (of Śrī Cāntamūla): mahārajasa virūpakhapati-mahāsena-parigahitasa hiraṇa-koṭa-go-satasahasa-hala-satasaha[sa-]dāyisa savathesu apatihata-saṃkapasa vāsiṭhiputasa ikhākusa siri-cātamūlasa. Note the link- ing of the two passages by the word parigahitasa, and the connection between apatihata- saṃkapasa and the apratihata-cakasa of Nāṇeghāṭ and the apatihata-bala-vāhano of Uday- agiri. A longer eulogy of the Buddha is found in inscription G. For a new study of the Ikṣvāku inscriptions, we look forward to the results of a research project directed by Stefan Baums, Arlo Griffiths, Ingo Strauch, and Vincent Tournier. 68. No Sanskrit inscription is dated to the reigns of Śrī Cāntamūla (r. ca. 225-240) or Vīrapuruṣadatta (r. ca. 240-265); Sanskrit inscriptions appear in the reign of Ehuvula Cāntamūla (r. ca. 265-290) and Rudrapuruṣadatta (r. ca. 290-315). One of Vīrapuruṣadatta's 26. For the language of Aśvaghoṣa's dramas, see Lüders 1911. Lenition is the softening of consonants (such as the intervocalic t in mata, softened to mada and finally maa); see the discussion in chapter 4. Weber 1881; Keith 1920: 224; and Jacobi 1886: §14 argue for this. 27. Nitti-Dolci 1972 [1938]: §214.
  25. See Mirashi 1947. I do not know where he cites Pītāmbara's commentary from, but the verses he mentions as 616, 617, and 618 are found as 619, 620, and 621 in the edition of Jagdish Lal Shastri (matching the numeration of Weber's 1881 edition). W619, W620, and W621 appear in Bhuvanapāla and Ājaḍa's recension in a different position and are assigned completely different authors. Pītāmbara attributes W95 to Vākpatirāja, but the correspond- ing name is spelled as Bappayarāya in Ājaḍa's commentary, and assigned to W96. The form Vākpatirāja found in Pītāmbara and Bhuvanapāla may be a false Sanskritization; I strongly suspect that the original form was Bapparāya, the name of an author who is quoted in Svayambhū's Meters (4.2.7). Only W621 and W95 (as well as W96) are common to all re- censions in Weber's edition. The idea of a first-or second-century "kernel" is also found in Gopalachari 1941: 42.
  26. See Songs of the Buddhist Nuns (Therīgāthā), trans. Hallisey, p. xxiii. 38. Verse 468 of the Topical Anthology (Vajjālagga), compiled some time after Seven Centuries, memorializes Hāla: "They say women are faithful if they come from good fami- lies. But that's not true: they are faithful if they have a good husband. Even when Hāla went to heaven, the Godāvarī river did not leave her master's place, the city of Pratiṣṭhāna" (purisaviseseṇa saïttaṇāi na kulakkameṇa mahilāṇa | saggaṃ gae vi hāle na muyai golā païṭṭhāṇaṃ ||, reading païṭṭhāṇaṃ as both pratiṣṭhānaṃ and pati-sthānaṃ). 39. Desai 1985: 18-28 records the common interpretation of couples (mithunas) as aus- picious symbols in sculptural art of the Sātavāhana period, but also notes their decorative function and the prominence of the erotic (śṛṅgāra) in the decorative program of rock-cut 135. On Nāgārjuna and Sātavāhana, see Lévi 1936: 101ff.. Walser 2005 identifies the king, plausibly in my view, with Gautamīputra Yajñaśrī Sātakarṇi (see Warder 1968 for the suggestion that it is Vāsiṣṭhīputra Śrī Puḷumāvi). The later Jain traditions that make Nāgārjuna a student of Pālitta (see Granoff 1994) are probably based on the figure that M. A. Dhaky calls "Pādalipta II, " a Jain adept associated with Śatruñjaya around the sev- enth or eighth century, who may indeed be connected to the adept (siddha) and alchemist Nāgārjuna. 136. See appendix C. 137. Pollock 1995. CHAPTER
  27. Grierson 1927: 123, quoted in chapter 1.
  28. Vajjālagga, v. 28: desiyasaddapaloṭṭaṃ mahurakkharachaṃdasaṃṭhiyaṃ laliyaṃ | phuḍaviyaḍapāyaḍatthaṃ pāiyakavvaṃ paḍheyavvaṃ ||. See also chapter 5 for a similar verse from the same collection. Patwardhan understands the Prakrit name Jayavallaha to represent Jayavallabha, but I think Jagadvallabha is more likely.
  29. The difference between the number of phonemes of Prakrit and the number of "root phonemes" (mūlākṣaras) of Sanskrit is noted, e.g., in the beginning of the recently discov- ered Praśnavyākaraṇa (see Acharya 2007), of which Jagat Ram Bhattacharya is currently preparing an edition. 16. In some manuscripts, only ṇ is written; in others, n is written when it stands at the beginning of a word or when doubled, and ṇ is written elsewhere.
  30. See, e.g., Collection of Mora-and Syllable-Counting Meters 4.29 (the other varieties are scattered throughout this chapter) and Teaching on Meter 4.25-28. Bhoja refers to an older view among scholars that the galitaka verses of the three major Prakrit court epics are interpolations. Hemacandra has reproduced Bhoja's comment, although he takes Sarvasena to task for including pointless descriptions in the galitaka verses of Hari's Victory, so we may assume that he did not subscribe to the view that the galitakas were interpolated. See Raghavan 1963: 802-803 and Teaching on Literature, pp. 461-462.
  31. Rāvaṇa's Demise 9.82 (reading rāaeṇa for Goldschmidt's unmetrical rāeṇa). For ya- maka, see Soehnen-Thieme 1995 and Tubb 2015. Kālidāsa's systematic yamaka compositions in the Dynasty of Raghu, discussed by Tubb, may well be influenced by the systematic ya- maka compositions found in earlier Prakrit court epics such as Hari's Victory. 26. For the deśī vocabulary of Rāvaṇa's Demise, see Roy 1998.
  32. For the gāthā in Prakrit literature in general, see Vyas 1962: § §161-162. The Vajjālagga has a gāthāvrajyā (vv. 9-18 in Patwardhan's edition), and the Treasury of Gāthā-Jewels has a section titled kāvyapraśaṃsā (vv. 19-29) that includes several verses about gāthās. 28. Pollock 2006a: 288. 29. Horsch 1966.
  33. Some authors counted 81,920,000 "surface forms" of the gāthā (Definition of the Gāthā 51; Mirror for Poets 2.6); others rightly disputed this number, because it did not take 49. Ratnāvalī 1.13-15; see Svayambhū's Meters 4.1 (pūrvabhāga, p. 114). I have taken the reading from Svayambhū; editions of the Ratnāvalī I have consulted-no critical edition yet exists-read the language more in the convention of theatrical Prakrit (Śaurasenī). 50. Anuyogadvāra Sūtra 271: pariyarabaṃdheṇa bhaḍam jāṇejjā, mahiliyaṃ nivasaṇeṇaṃ | sittheṇa doṇapāgaṃ, kaviṃ ca egāi gāhāe ||.
  34. See Bāṇa's verse praising Seven Centuries (quoted in chapter 3), as well as Treasury of Gāthā-Jewels 2. V. 7 of Brilliance of the Connoisseurs is relevant here, and I provide the text be- cause it has not yet been published: vimalo suvaṇṇa-gaḍhio ṇāṇālaṃkāra-bharia-bahalattho | vaïroaṇeṇa raïo gāhā-raaṇassa rehae koso |. The reading -raaṇāṇa makes better sense. 52. Mirror of Literature 1.13.
  35. Quoted in Kahrs 1992: 245 from Grierson's review of Pischel's Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen.
  36. See Bakhtin 1981: 295, quoted at the beginning of chapter 3, and Pollock 2006a: 45. 19. Sthānāṅga Sūtra 553 (7.74), p. 674 l. 5 (sakkatā pāgatā ceva duvidhā bhaṇitīo āhitā); Anuyogadvāra Sūtra 260 (gāthā 53), p. 305 l. 3 (sakkayā pāyayā ceva bhaṇiīo hoṃti duṇṇi u). I would guess that these gāthās date to sometime between the second and the fourth century ce. 20. Birth of Kumāra 7.90 (in Kale's edition with Mallinātha's commentary) or 7.89 (in Mur- ti's edition with Vallabhadeva's commentary): dvidhā prayuktena ca vāṅmayena sarasvatī tan mithunaṃ nunāva | saṃskārapūtena varaṃ vareṇyaṃ vadhūṃ sukhagrāhyanibandhanena ||.
  37. Kāma Sūtra, p. 53: veśyābhavane sabhāyām anyatamasyodavasite vā samānavid- yābuddhiśīlavittavayasāṃ saha veśyābhir anurūpair ālāpair āsanabandho goṣṭhī, tatra kāvyasamasyā kalāsamasyā vā. tasyām ujjvalā lokakāntāḥ pūjyāḥ, prītisamānāś cāhāritāḥ. See the discussion in chapter 3. 28. Ibid., p. 60: nātyantaṃ saṃskṛtenaiva nātyantaṃ deśabhāṣayā | kathāṃ goṣṭhīṣu kathayaṃl loke bahumato bhavet || (the verse is also quoted by Bhoja at Necklace of Sarasvatī 2.12, p. 142).
  38. Yaśodhara's comment (nātyantam iti, kaścid eva saṃskṛtaṃ vetti deśabhāṣāṃ ca) means that people who know both Sanskrit and the regional language are rare, and that one should switch between them in order to avoid boring or alienating those who only know one language. But the point of the verse as I understand it is that knowledge of both languages is normative. 30. Vajjālagga, v. 29: lalie mahurakkharae juvaījaṇavallahe sasiṃgāre | saṃte pāiyakavve ko sakkaï sakkayaṃ paḍhiuṃ ||. The same verse is quoted in the Treasury of Gāthā-Jewels, v. 20. 31. Karpūramañjarī 1.7 (p. 5 in the edition of Konow; Ghosh's edition lacks this verse): parusā sakkaabandhā pāuabandho vi suumāro | purisamahilāṇaṁ jettiam ihantaraṃ tettiam imāṇaṃ ||.
  39. For the Prakrit verses quoted therein, see appendix C. Vv. 17.6-9 are Prakrit gāthās, parts of which are also quoted in the Definition of the Gāthā of Nanditāḍhya (date un- known) and the Dhavalā and Jayadhavalā commentaries by Vīrasena and Jinasena (com- posed in ninth-century Karnataka). They are likely adopted from an earlier grammar, pos- sibly Harivṛddha's (see chapter 5). Vv. 17.10-23 are composed in Sanskrit āryās. For more on the Treatise on Theater's grammar of Prakrit see Nitti-Dolci 1972 [1938]: 61-92.
  40. It is not certain that the author of Rogue Stories (Dhūrtākhyāna) is identical to the Haribhadra that Uddyotana identifies as his teacher. 92. Uddyotana, Kuvalayamālā, pp. 152-153 ( §246). Other examples are given in Upa- dhye's useful introductory note (pp. 77ff.). 93. Ibid., p. 16, §40: keettha pāyaya-pāḍhayā, keittha sakkaya-pāḍhayā, aṇṇe avabbhaṃsa- jāṇiṇo. 94. Deeds of Padma 1.2.3: sakkaẏa-pāẏaẏa-puliṇālaṅkiẏa (sc. rāmakahā-ṇaï eha kamāgaẏa at the beginning of this kaḍavaka). 95. Deeds of King Vikramāṅka 18.6: brūmaḥ sārasvata-kula-bhuvaḥ kiṃ nidheḥ kautukānāṃ tasyānekādbhuta-guṇa-kathā-kīrṇa-karṇāmṛtasya | yatra strīṇām api kim aparaṃ janma-bhāṣāvad eva pratyāvāsaṃ vilasati vacaḥ saṃskṛtaṃ prākṛtaṃ ca ||. 96. Adapted from Williams 1983: 90. Bilhaṇa's fondness for the term janmabhāṣā quali- fies the claim that "the concept of a mother tongue is a foreign, post-nineteenth century idea in India" (Narayana Rao 2003: 425).
  41. See Ratnaśrījñāna on Mirror of Literature 1.36 (p. 25): apabhraṃśo 'pi prākṛtavac caturdhā smaryate. yad uktam-śabdabhavaṃ śabdasamaṃ deśīyaṃ sarvaśabdasāmānyam | prākṛtavad apabhraṃśaṃ jānīhi caturvidham āhitam || iti. 100. Message Poem, vv. 4, 6 (see the references in chapter 1). 101. Tieken 2008. 102. New Dramatic Art, p. 376. One of the "sublanguages" is Ābhīrī, which is named for one of the same communities with which Daṇḍin would associate literary Apabhramsha. 103. See Illumination of the Erotic, chap. 3, pp. 164-166 (translated at Pollock 2006a: 581-582). 104. Pollock 2006a: 133. 105. Narayana Rao 1995: 34-35. 106. For a longer discussion of Paishachi, see Ollett 2014, the key points of which are summarized here; the major contributions to the question include Grierson 1906; Lacôte 1908; Master 1943; Sani 1985; Hinüber 1981, 1985. 107. Barth 1885: 277 [457], lviii C15). 108. See Govardhana, Seven Centuries of Āryās, v. xxxiv: śrīrāmāyaṇabhāratabṛhat- kathānām kavīn namaskurmaḥ | trisrotā iva sarasā sarasvatī sphurati yair bhinnā ||. 109. In Sanskrit: the Ocean of the Rivers of Story by Somadeva, the Cluster of Blos- soms from the Great Story by Kṣemendra, and Verse Summary of the Great Story (Bṛhatkathāślokasaṅgraha) by Budhasvāmin, for all of which see Lacôte 1908. In Tamil: the Great Story (Peruṅkatai), for which see Vijayalakshmy 1978, 1981, 1982. In Prakrit: the Wanderings of Vasudeva by Saṅghadāsa, for which see Jain 1977. 110. Uttanūr plates of Durvinīta (Ramesh 1984: 82): devabhāratīnibaddhavaḍḍhaka- thena. 111. Mirror of Literature 1.38cd: bhūtabhāṣāmayīṃ tv āhur adbhutārthā bṛhatkathā, ac- cepting the variant tv āhur with Ratnaśrījñāna instead of prāhur. 112. See Way of the Poet-King v. 1.41: sakkadamuṃ pāgadamum ad' akkuṃ bagedante samaṟi pēḻal munnaṃ: "From time immemorial, Sanskrit and Prakrit could be used for refined compositions, as one sees fit. " 113. Ponna in his Śāntipurāṇa (pēḻva mūṟuvare bhāṣegaḷam; see Rice 1882: 301) and Nāgavarman in his Ocean of Meters: saṃskṛtaṃ prākṛtam apabhraṃśaṃ paiśācikam emba mūṟuvare bhāṣegaḷoḷ (Master 1943: 43-44; Pollock 2006a: 370). 114. Kuvayalamālā §7, p. 4 l. 12: koūhaleṇa katthaï para-vayaṇa-vaseṇa sakkaya- ṇibaddhā | kiṃci avabbhaṃsa-kayā dāviya-pesāya-bhāsillā ||. 115. Ornament of Literature 2.12: prākṛta-saṃskṛta-māgadha-piśācabhāṣāś ca sūrasenī | ṣaṣṭho 'tra bhūribhedo désaviśeṣād apabhraṃśaḥ ||. See Jacobi 1918: 81*, who also noted that Rudraṭa was the first to express the idea of the "six languages. " 116. See Hahn 2012, and see the verse of Bhavabhūti cited above. 117. One of Bhoja's examples (Necklace of Sarasvatī 2 ex. 164) praises Viṣṇu (in Sanskrit) and Śiva (in Paishachi) simultaneously: rucirañjitārihetiṃ jananamitaṃ sāmakāyamakalaṅkam | santamamitaṃ ca mānaya kamalāsanamabhivirājantam || (for a translation, see Ollett 2014: 444-445). 118. This common knowledge is contained in the following verse: saṃskṛtaṃ prākṛtaṃ caivāpabhraṃśo 'tha piśācikī | māgadhī śaurasenī ca ṣaḍbhāṣāś ca prakīrtitāḥ ||. It appears in 1. On Hemacandra's career and the probable sequence of his works, see Bühler 1936.
  42. See River of Amazement, p. 102 (madhye syād antarantareti śālivāhanaḥ; antarantarā is used in a Sanskrit verse, but Ghanaśyāma often quotes Sanskrit lexica to explain Prakrit words, and I see no reason why the reverse should not be true), p. 117 (ettaham etta- tthaṇīti śālivāhanaḥ), and p. 157 (milāamāṇety etat hasamāṇā hasantī ca hasamāṇeti dig iti prākrṭacandrikāyāṃ śālivāhanokteḥ sādhīyaḥ). As noted in chapter 1, the River of Amaze- ment is ascribed to Ghanaśyāma's wives Sundarī and Kamalā.
  43. On points of Prakrit grammar Ghanaśyāma defaults to Vararuci's Light on Prakrit, which was presumably more comprehensive. 14. All of the Prakrit-language fragments of Prakrit grammars discovered to date are collected in appendix C (Nitti-Dolci 1972 [1938]: §845 referred to them as "some āryās on grammatical generalities and some isolated sūtras"). Harivṛddha and Sātavāhana are men- tioned together in a verse quoted by Bhoja (in both the Necklace of Sarasvatī and the Illumi- nation of the Erotic), in a passage from Rājaśekhara's Karpūramañjarī, and in the Collection of Mora-and Syllable-Counting Meters, which are given as testimonia in the aforementioned appendix. See also Bhayani 1975. The name "Old Hari" also provides some slight evidence for the poet's antiquity. For the date of the Definition of the Gāthā, see the discussion in chapter 4. 15. Nitti-Dolci 1972 [1938]: 221-222 = §845.
  44. Konow (1894) believed that Pāṇini really did write a Prakrit grammar. 23. See pp. 124-130 of Acharya's edition of Mārkaṇḍeya's Sum-Total of Prakrit.
  45. Harivṛddha uses saddasama, and Bharata samānaśabda, for Daṇḍin's tatsama; for tadbhava, Harivṛddha has saddabhava and Bharata has vibhraṣṭa; for deśī, Harivṛddha has desī and Bharata has deśīgata. For other synonyms of these words see Acharya's introduction (p. 56) to his edition of the Sum-Total of Prakrit. I use the term "derived" as a functional descrip- tion of the category. E. G. Kahrs (1992) protests too much that "tadbhava in the sense of 'derived from Sanskrit' was a feat of Western authors" (245), since "derivation"-not neces- sarily in the sense of descent through time, but in the sense of systematic transformation through grammatical rules-is precisely what the category refers to, especially in its syn- onyms vibhraṣṭa-, vikārin-, tajja-, etc. See also Pollock 2004: n. 19. 44. Masica 1991: 65, referring to Vertogradova 1978.
  46. Namisādhu does so only indirectly, since Prakrit is not one of the languages for which he gives explicit rules: he notes that the rules he supplies for the other languages involve "exceptions" (apavādas) to the rules that operate on Prakrit, which in turn relate Prakrit to Sanskrit. One example is that "in Paiśācikā, there is no elision of the letters k, g, c, j, t, d, p, and y" (tathā kagacajatadapayādīnāṃ paiśācikyāṃ svaraśeṣābhāvo ''bhihitaḥ), implying that such an elision does obtain in Prakrit. 52. Siddhahemacandra on 8.1.1: prakṛtiḥ saṃskṛtaṃ, tatrabhavaṃ tata āgataṃ vā prākṛtaṃ.
  47. See Dvivedi 2008 [1952], who is somewhat critical of these forward-tilting histories. 79. Hunter 2015: 740; Virāṭaparvan, pp. 7-8: umilva maṅgalā niṅ maṅjavākna byāsamata, maṅgala niṅ mikəta prakṛta nikeṅ virāṭaparva saṅ kathā (reading niṅ mikəta with Fokker instead of nimitta with Juynboll).
  48. Cf. Pollock 2004: 406: "The striving for the specification of the vernacular particular from within the dominating Sanskrit epistemological universal; the quest for discipline in the putatively lawless dialectal; the search for a new authority upon which this discipline could be founded; the royal court as the social site par excellence for the production of sys- tematic vernacular knowledge-this entire culture-power complex of vernacularity finds its most condensed expression in the production of Kannada grammar. " See also p. 412 of the same article. 82. Jewel-Mirror of Language 174: padavidhi kannaḍakaṃ sakkadakkam illādyarinde sanduvan aṟid' i-| rpudu birudāvaḷiyoḷ pēḻvudu peṟavaṟoḷ āgad' idu viruddha-samāsam ||: 98. New Dramatic Art, 4: 385 (comm. on 32.382): trivargaprasiddhaṃ padamadhye saṃskṛtaṃ madhye deśabhāṣādiyuktaṃ tad eva kāryam, dakṣiṇāpathe maṇipravālam iti prasiddham, kāśmīre śāṭakulam iti. See also Ezhuthachan 1971. CHAPTER 7. FORGET TING PR AKRIT 1. "The learned delight in the Sanskrit language; / nobody can relish the flavor of Prakrit. / Regional speech is sweet to everyone, / so that's the kind of Avahaṭṭha I'll speak. " Cited from McGregor 1984: 30; the translation is my own.
  49. E.g., Siddharṣi (see chapter 3).
  50. The opposition dates to around 1540 (Alessandro Citolini's Lettera in difesa della lin- gua volgare), and it is conspicuously absent from earlier discussions of Latin and the ver- naculars in Renaissance Italy. See Faithfull 1953; Mioni 2004. On the "death of Sanskrit, " see Pollock 2001. 5. Alsdorf 2006 [1965]: 15-16. 6. Pollock 1998; 2006a: pt. 2. 7. Phukan 2001: 37. 8. Pollock 2006a: 390-391; 2011: 24-25.
  51. The inscription, dated to the reign of the Cāḷukya king Vijayāditya Satyāśraya, is edited in Panchamukhi 1941: 2-3. 15. Yashaschandra 2003: 581 . 16. Rice 1882: 301, 304; Ornament of the Āndhra Language, v. 5. For Ketana and Tikkana, see Narayana Rao 2003: 393. 17. Narayana Rao 1995: 28; 2003: 398. 18. Deeds of Manu, vv. 7-8. 19. Raghavan 1963: 824. 20. See Dvivedi 2008 [1952] and Siṃh 1971 [1952].
  52. The text was edited by A. N. Upadhye; unbeknownst to him, it seems, Weber also consulted this text for his edition of Seven Centuries (it is his "second Telugu recension"). 26. Somasekhara Sarma 1948: 469; Narayana Rao and Shulman 2012: 22.
  53. Vema, Essence of the Seven Centuries: hālaḥ prāk saptaśatīṃ gāthākoṭer vyadhatta saṃprati tu | so 'yaṃ vemabhūpālas tasyā api śatakam āharat sāram ||. 28. See Ghatage 1934-1935; Jain 1981: 38, and the comprehensive Jain 1961. 29. Yashaschandra 2003: 584-585; Bangha 2012. 30. Cort 2009. 31. Epitome of Queen Līlāvatī, pp. 26-28.
  54. A. N. Upadhye's introduction to vol. 2 of the Kuvayalamālā, p. 96; Christine Cho- jnacki is preparing a paper on these abridgments (see also Chojnacki 2012, 2016). 33. Ghatage 1934-1935: 42.
  55. Cort 2015; on the Essence for Gommaṭa (Gommaṭasāra), see also Upadhye 1983; 1990: 263 .
  56. See Upadhye's introductions to the Candralekhā, as well as Naikar 1998 and the forthcoming PhD dissertation of Melinda Fodor (Paris).
  57. Harṣapāla's commentary, second verse: tena prākṛtakovidaiḥ saha samālocya prasannākṣaram saṃkṣepād akarod idaṃ vivaraṇaṃ śrīharṣapālo nṛpaḥ ||. 51. Pollock 2014: 119. 52. See Prakrit Piṅgala 1.71, 1.190, 1.204. Similar "accidental anthologies" are discussed in chapter 4. 53. Siṃh 1997 [1956];
  58. Edited by Jina Vijaya Muni. Singhi Jain Series 2. Calcutta [Kolkata]: Siṅghī Jaina Jñānapīṭha, 1936. Commentary on the Wish-Granting Vine of Literature (Kāvyakalpalatāvṛtti) of Amaracan- dra: Kāvyakalpalatāvṛtti with Sūtras (Text) of Arisinha by Amara-Chandra Yati. Edited by Jagannath Sastri Hoshing. Benares [Varanasi]: Vidya Vilas Press, 1931. Compendium of the Essence of Figures in Literature (Kāvyālaṃkārasārasaṅgraha) of Udbhaṭa: Kāvyālaṅkāra-sāra-saṅgraha of Udbhaṭa. Edited by Narayana Daso Banhatti. Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series 79. Poona [Pune]: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1982.
  59. Cloud Messenger (Meghadūta) of Kālidāsa: The Meghadûta of Kâlidâsa, With the Commen- tary (Saṃjîvanî) of Mallinâtha. Edited by M. R. Kale. Bombay [Mumbai]: Bombay Vaib- hav Press, 1934.
  60. Cluster of Blossoms from the Great Story (Bṛhatkathāmañjarī) of Kṣemendra: The Bṛihatkathâmañjarî of Kshemendra. Edited by Paṇḍit Śivadatta and Kâshînâth Pâṇdurang Parab. Kāvyamālā 69. Bombay [Mumbai]: Nirṇaya-Sâgara Press, 1901. Cluster of Blossoms of Prakrit (Prākṛtamañjarī): See Light on Prakrit. Descent of Forms for Prakrit (Prākṛtarūpāvatāra) of Siṃharāja: Prakritarupavatara: A Prakrit Grammar Based on the Valmiki sutra, by Simharaja, son of Samudrabandhayaj- van. Edited by E. Hultzsch. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1909.
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Authors
Ollett, A.
Corresponding author
Ollett, Andrew
ORCID
Ollett, Andrew
Venue
University of California Press eBooks
Publisher
University of California Press
Published
2017-10-10
DOI
10.1525/luminos.37
OpenAlex
W2224231883
Cited by
81
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0
Citations by year
2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1
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book
Language
en
Open access
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cc-by-nc-nd
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  • University of California Press eBooks (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
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  • Directory of Open access Books (OAPEN Foundation) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
Funders
  • Harvard University
  • York University
  • University of Oxford
  • Universiteit van Amsterdam
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Classical Studies and Philology
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and language evolution
Keywords
Prakrit language, Sanskrit, language order, Indian classical literature, Demotic language, vernacular literature, language classification

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