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Locked Up: Fear, Racism, Prison Economics, and the Incarceration of Native Youth
Open accessAbstract
Native youth are disproportionately incarcerated, often for relatively minor offenses. One potential solution is to move more Native youth out of federal and state courts and invest in tribal juvenile justice systems. Tribal systems are assumed to be less punitive than nontribal ones, so greater tribal control should mean less incarceration. Little is known, however, about the role of incarceration in tribally run systems. This article examines available information on Native youth in tribal juvenile justice systems from 1998 to 2013. At least sixteen new secure juvenile facilities were built to house youth under tribal court jurisdiction, with federal investment in incarceration far outpacing investment in alternative programs. The total number of juveniles housed in these facilities remained constant or declined, suggesting that new construction was not driven by a need for more bed space. Of the juveniles incarcerated in these facilities, a minority had committed violent offenses, suggesting that incarceration was used by tribes as a tool to address drug, alcohol, property, and other nonviolent offenses. By critically examining the central role played by incarceration in tribal juvenile systems and situating it against the backdrop of the national trend toward mass incarceration, this article seeks to help tribes avoid replicating mistakes made by other jurisdictions.
Overview
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TL;DR
This article examines Native youth incarceration in tribal juvenile justice systems from 1998 to 2013 and argues that strengthening tribal self-determination may not automatically reduce overincarceration. It shows that secure juvenile facilities expanded even as the number of juveniles held declined, driven by fear, racialized crime rhetoric, criminalization of nonviolent offenses, and prison economics.
Key findings
- Between 1998 and 2013, correctional facilities on tribal lands rose from 69 to 79, a net increase of 10, with about half of that net increase due to new juvenile facilities; at least 16 new juvenile facilities were built to house youth under tribal court jurisdiction, and stand-alone juvenile facilities nearly doubled while the number of juveniles held fell from 303 in 1998 to 190 in 2013.
- In June 2013, of 164 juveniles held in 16 designated juvenile facilities, 23% (38) were held for violent offenses, 5% (9) for property offenses, and 20% (33) for drug- or alcohol-related offenses; less than one-quarter were held for violent offenses.
- Federal funding strongly favored incarceration over alternatives: the DOJ provided over $150 million in grants to tribes to build incarceration facilities between 1997 and 2004; the BIA received $637 million for law enforcement services plus $31.5 million for operation, maintenance, and staffing of new facilities; the Tribal Youth Program received $10–$13 million annually from 1999 to 2008; and the BIA detention budget grew from $43.8 million in 2005 to $64.7 million in 2009.
- The article links this investment to three structural factors: prison construction is not explained by violent crime rates; fear and racialized perceptions of crime, along with criminalization of nonviolent behavior, drive incarceration; and economic incentives—including contract beds and pressure to keep facilities full—can make prisons self-perpetuating.
Methods
- Descriptive policy and legal analysis of available information on Native youth in tribal juvenile justice systems during 1998–2013, focusing on facility counts, juvenile inmate counts, offense types, and federal funding streams.
- Data sources include the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ annual *Jails in Indian Country* reports, BIA facility inventories, Department of the Interior Office of Inspector General reports, BIA budget justifications, DOJ/OJJDP reports, an unpublished Association on American Indian Affairs list of Indian country juvenile facilities, and the author’s professional observations and anecdotes.
- The analysis compiles tables and trends, compares facility growth against juvenile population changes, and situates the findings within the broader mass incarceration literature; no new primary data collection or causal modeling is conducted.
Limitations
- The author states that publicly available data on juvenile justice in Indian country is limited, incomplete, and at times contradictory; no definitive count exists of facilities, juvenile housing arrangements, or offenses, and a complete accounting would require visiting every BIA facility and gathering information from tribes, a task no one has yet accomplished.
- Specific data gaps include: the *Survey of Jails in Indian Country* was not conducted in 2005 or 2006; the offense table is a rough count from 16 designated juvenile facilities and excludes facilities not clearly designated as juvenile; discrepancies exist among sources, such as facility counts and the 2000 mid-year inmate count; and some tribally operated facilities may not appear in the BIA inventory.
- Evident from the text: the article relies on descriptive and incomplete data, secondary reports, and anecdotes, so it cannot establish causal relationships between facility construction and incarceration rates or definitively test whether tribal systems are less punitive; the author notes it “sketches out the contours of a phenomenon I have observed but which cannot yet be carefully documented.”
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Claims the paper makes
174 Sources not found · 63 Own interpretation · 28 No basis given · 8 Own result · 2 Own method · 1 Not checked yet
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In the paper
“Yet a review of available data regarding incarceration facilities on tribal lands reveals an investment of federal and tribal money in building and operating secure juvenile facilities that dwarfs the investment in alternative models.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As shown in table 1, between 1998 and 2004 the number of correctional facilities located on tribal lands remained relatively steady at between sixty-eight and seventy.”
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In the paper
“From 2005 to 2009, the Bureau's detention budget increased again by 48 percent.105”
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- Not matchedcites [105]
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In the paper
“Between 1997 and 2004, the DOJ provided over $150 million in grants to tribes to build incarceration facilities.103”
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In the paper
“Congress' investment of federal funds in improving and expanding incarceration facilities on tribal lands far exceeded its investment in other possible solutions, such as diverting youth out of the system entirely or investing in nonsecure facilities or alternative programs.”
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In the paper
“In June 2013, counting only stand-alone juvenile facilities, there was a separate juvenile facility for every fourteen youth being held in Indian country.98”
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- Not matchedcites [98]
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“For youth who arguably require removal from home, little funding has been directed toward creating nonsecure placement options in tribal communities.107”
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In the paper
“the total mid-year count of juveniles in all Indian country facilities, including any juveniles being held as adults or in adult holding facilities, was 303 in 1998 and 190 in 2014.”
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- Rests on an assumption: The best available federal data on Indian country facilities, though incomplete and contradictory, is adequate for the article's counts and trends.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The significant financial investment in the incarceration of Native youth under the jurisdiction of tribal systems during this fifteen-year period should raise doubts about this assumption.”
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones and will rely less on incarceration.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overreliance on incarceration, especially by federal and state authorities, is a primary aspect of this failure.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, secure juvenile facilities, like all prisons, can be part of a self-perpetuating system.”
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In the paper
“At least sixteen new juvenile facilities were built to house youth under the jurisdiction of tribal courts during this time, 5”
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“Because of the tangled web of criminal jurisdiction over Indian lands, many Native youth who commit offenses within Indian country are prosecuted by federal or state governments with no regard to tribal government preferences.50”
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In the paper
“Indeed, the limited data available indicate that the majority of youth in tribal detention facilities are being held for low-level nonviolent offenses that are often linked to drug and alcohol abuse.14”
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In the paper
“Third, economic incentives can be a significant factor in prison expansion.”
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In the paper
“They are poorer.23”
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In the paper
“First, prison construction cannot be explained simply as a response to skyrocketing violent crime rates.”
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In the paper
“The investment in juvenile incarceration occurred against the backdrop of a broader phenomenon of prison-building that occurred in jurisdictions across the United States beginning in the late 1970s and peaking in the 1990s.”
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In the paper
“Native youth are particularly likely to be exposed to some form of violence in their lives, including being victims of child abuse, witnessing domestic violence, and witnessing interpersonal violence in their communities.33”
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“They are likely to struggle with drug and alcohol use.29”
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In the paper
“The unprecedented rise in incarceration rates in the United States “cannot simply be ascribed to a higher level of crime today compared with the early 1970s, when the prison boom began.”12”
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In the paper
“and many more juvenile facilities were upgraded, even though the total number of juveniles housed in incarceration facilities remained constant or declined.6”
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In the paper
“Native youth who come into contact with the juvenile justice system are more likely to be locked in secure confinement than other youth, 3”
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In the paper
“this article demonstrates that tribal governments are not immune from the forces that moved juvenile justice policy in a more punitive direction from the 1970s until very recently.”
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In the paper
“A 2005 study found that, although only 1 percent of the Minnesota population is Native American, more than 15 percent of those confined in the state juvenile correctional facility were Native youth.44”
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In the paper
“In spite of their incredible vulnerability, Native youth face overly harsh sanctions once they enter the legal system.”
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In the paper
“Compared to other groups and compared to the general population, Native youth are especially vulnerable in almost every area identified as a risk factor for delinquency.22”
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In the paper
“In states and counties with relatively large Native American populations, where Native incarceration can best be compared to the incarceration rates for youth of other races, the data reveal stark disparities.42”
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In the paper
“with disproportionality rates in some localities exceeding those experienced by Black and Latino youth.4”
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- Not matchedcites [4]
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“Research has shown that Native youth as a group 20 are especially vulnerable and traumatized.21”
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In the paper
“and many more juvenile facilities were upgraded, even though the total number of juveniles housed in incarceration facilities remained constant or declined.6”
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“Many live in communities with few social safety net services.24”
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In the paper
“Although that information is limited, it suggests incarceration was a central feature of tribal juvenile justice systems and related federal policy.”
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In the paper
“the shift in juvenile justice policy was particularly pronounced as the justification for juvenile confinement shifted from therapeutic rehabilitation to tough punishment.13”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [13]
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In the paper
“Where federal money is available to support prison construction-and especially if tribal leaders envision those prisons becoming economically self-sufficient, creating jobs where there were none, or generating a profit-a tribe will have strong reasons to prioritize incarceration that have nothing to do with justice policy.”
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Most tribal communities have high unemployment rates and very little available funding for government infrastructure.
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In the paper
“Non-incarceration measures, like juvenile drug/wellness courts, may be able to operate free of some of the due-process requirements that federal law imposes in cases where incarceration may result.”
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None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In addition, some states were granted concurrent criminal and/or juvenile delinquency jurisdiction over Indian country within their borders by federal statute: Public Law 280 is the primary such law, 60 but there are others.61”
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In the paper
“This can be accomplished for Indian country youth without drastic changes to the law because tribes have either exclusive or concurrent jurisdiction over almost all Native youth who commit offenses within tribal territory.53”
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In the paper
“The main restriction that federal law imposes on tribal criminal courts is one of sentence length: tribes in most cases may not sentence an offender to more than one year in jail or prison, or up to three years if the tribe' s laws comply with certain federal requirements.63”
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“Tribal justice systems that incorporate tribal culture and tradition tend to be less focused on adversarial process and individualized punishment and more focused on restorative justice, community well-being, treatment, and healing.71”
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“Youth who commit offenses outside of Indian country are adjudicated in state or local systems with no requirement to notify the child's tribe or involve it in the disposition.51”
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In the paper
“Most notably, the federal government exercises concurrent jurisdiction over Native youth who commit major crimes in Indian country.59”
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In the paper
“Because the term of incarceration arising from a delinquency adjudication is typically shorter than an adult sentence, and because delinquency jurisdiction may terminate when a juvenile reaches rolnIck | locked up 61 eighteen or twenty-one years of age, the federal law restriction on sentence length doesn't constrain juvenile courts to the same extent it does adult criminal courts.”
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In the paper
“The important point is that federal law imposes very few restrictions on tribal power in this area.”
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In the paper
“Except for a small subset of domestic violence offenders, tribes lack criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians.57”
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In the paper
“Juvenile delinquency jurisdiction-disciplining, controlling, teaching, and caring for children-is a key aspect of this inherent authority.”
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In the paper
“Federal law imposes minimal restrictions on tribal juvenile delinquency jurisdiction over Native youth.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If one justification for incarcerating juveniles is the public safety threat posed by violent offenders, it is noteworthy that less than one-quarter of the juveniles held in secure confinement as a result of tribal court involvement committed violent offenses.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the existence of concurrent federal or state power does not strip the tribe of its inherent jurisdiction.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the substantial financial investment required to construct and operate at least six new juvenile facilities, and upgrade or replace others, does not appear to be supported by a need for more bed space because the population of juveniles in facilities has decreased.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: All facilities included in the federal inventory are built to the highest security level and are functionally equivalent to juvenile prisons.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With regard to Native youth who commit offenses in tribal territory, tribes have jurisdiction over a full range of criminal offenses as long as those offenses are defined as crimes under tribal law.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“Furthermore, tribes are the only sovereign with jurisdiction over minor offenses committed by Native youth in Indian country not subject to Public Law 280 or a similar law.62”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [62]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Prisons have been a key feature of social control.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [146]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The specter of violent youth crime can provide an easy justification for the emphasis on incarceration.140”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [140]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“His invocation of an imagined violent juvenile criminal, however, echoes the academic and political rhetoric about a coming generation of violent juvenile offenders that drove nationwide investment in juvenile criminalization and incarceration during the 1990s.143”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [143]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the tribal context, an increase in violent crime on reservations in the 1990s triggered a 1997 report calling for more law enforcement resources in Indian country.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [120]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“The machinery of criminal justice, from police surveillance to the inside of the prisons themselves-characterized by controlled movement, austere conditions, lack of privacy and freedom, and the threat of violent discipline-serves to remind all people, and those in prison especially, of the government' s power to control people.147”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [147]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“If the goal is to reduce juvenile overincarceration, the story of this era suggests that the federal government has been leading tribes in the wrong direction.145”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [145]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The homicide rate among youth, however, rose in the mid-1980s and continued to rise until it reached its apex in 1994.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [116]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Yet, within tribal systems, the investment in juvenile incarceration continued throughout this period.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [140]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other gross imbalance between the federal investments in incarceration versus non-incarceration alternatives necessarily constrains their ability to reduce reliance on incarceration.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the many reasons we might expect tribally run systems to avoid reliance on incarceration, the focus on construction of secure confinement facilities is surprising.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones and will rely less on incarceration.
In the paper
“Moreover, tribes cannot necessarily reprogram funding between categories, so a tribe that elected to close its incarceration facility may not be permitted to redirect those funds toward alternative programs.108”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [108]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is significant in the tribal context, where crime rates and the number of juveniles in secure confinement have actually decreased, that not one of the federal à à à reports cited in this article called for a moratorium on building any new secure juvenile facilities in Indian country.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“Juvenile confinement rates outside Indian country increased steadily until 1997, when they began a decline.119”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [119]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Following the 1997 report, the BIA centralized its law enforcement and public safety services, which meant that detention and corrections activities would be overseen by the national office, rather than by various regional offices.124”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [124]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Following the 2004 report, Congress increased the Bureau' s detention budget: it grew from $43.8 million in 2005 to $64.7 million in 2009.132”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [132]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“As of 2013, seven more juvenile facilities were slated to open in the next few years.131”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [131]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Juvenile justice was certainly affected by the resulting investment in law enforcement and detention resources.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Moreover, the most serious Indian country offenders are typically prosecuted in federal court.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [137]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the European and American context, prisons have increased in importance as other methods of punishment, such as the death penalty, physical torture, banishment, and public humiliation, have declined.148”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [148]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some of these issues are exacerbated for remote tribal communities.They may face the task of building an entire facility for a small number of juvenile offenders simply because there is nowhere else nearby to put them.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this scenario, a focus on revenue can potentially obscure a focus on the public safety needs of the tribal community.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The need to keep the prison full may also limit the resources available for alternative programs.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Racial stratification provides a particularly compelling explanation for the most recent (post-1970) rise in imprisonment in the United States.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The rise in the imprisoned population since the 1970s is largely attributable to a rise in the number of Black and Brown people in prison.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“They were governed by regulatory codes that defined as criminal, and punished, a range of activities associated with being Native, such as plural marriage, certain religious dances, and the practices of medicine people.162”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [162]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet, it is not clear that the perceived threat of violent crime has ever been true in the juvenile context.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In Indian country, prisons and punitive criminal justice were very specifically introduced as methods of assimilation and containment.154”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [154]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, they encouraged tribes to pursue contracts with the US Marshals Service and US Immigration and Customs Enforcement.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because funding is often determined by the number of prisoners, there is pressure to keep prisons full.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Funding for tribal detention facilities is typically based on the number of detainees held in the facility.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In that such a process can happen without any decision-maker explicitly intending to pursue it, overincarceration is a structural phenomenon.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tribal communities are thus particularly fertile ground for the idea that prison might provide its own ongoing funding and even generate additional jobs and revenue.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: For Indian tribes, local poverty and federal funding shortages create an atmosphere in which economic development and finding funding for core government programs is an enormous concern.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One strategy employed by BIA officials was to encourage tribal leaders to plan and build facilities with additional bed space that could be rented out to other jurisdictions, producing income that the tribe could use to operate its facility in the absence of available federal money.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Once a jail or prison is operational, its administrators must find money to keep it open, preserving the building and the jobs.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For example, the rise in imprisonment of Black men since the 1970s can be largely explained by long prison sentences imposed for relatively low-level drug crimes.156”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [156]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The economic side of prisons, including the financial incentives to build them, the industries that profit from them, and the internal and external financial pressures that operate to keep them open, reveals that the choice to build prisons is never simply a matter of criminal justice policy.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because they employ so many people and their operation is tied to ongoing funding, it can become politically difficult to close them.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Early juvenile justice systems reached much more broadly than adult criminal systems, permitting children to be locked up for a range of common misbehaviors by labeling them incorrigible.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“These laws, together with a national-level trend toward recriminalization of drug offenses and the imposition of mandatory minimum sentences for drug offenders, ensnared à à à many more Black and Latino Californians in the net of the criminal law.160”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [160]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Tribal communities administered criminal justice through methods like restitution and banishment.153”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [153]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Native youth face trauma that has been linked to the consequences of colonization, forced assimilation, and federal policies that have damaged tribal families, communities, and cultures.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A look behind the broad label reveals that children deemed in need of intervention (poor and minority children) were labeled as delinquent for typical childhood acts such as disobeying parents or being outside past curfew.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Black women end up in jail in part because their reproductive and childrearing decisions are the target of criminal sanctions.157”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [157]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For tribal communities with few private organizations providing services related to juvenile justice, this can leave courts with no other disposition options for juveniles.”
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tribes seeking to strengthen and reform their juvenile justice systems (both in 1998 and again in 2016) can easily inherit this cycle, so that tribal justice systems can accidentally perpetuate the incarceration bias even if the tribal leaders did not intend to increase juvenile incarceration.”
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Scarce funding for justice systems may make tribes even more likely to turn to prisons as revenue generators.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It also demonstrates that the enormous financial investment in prisons can obscure and even undercut other possible methods of addressing crime.”
boostedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Girls in particular were often locked up for behavior deemed too sexual.158”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [158]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Gilmore, in her study of prison expansion in California, highlighted the economic draw of a prison for the rural towns in which most were located.164”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [164]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“When politicians and others invoke a fear of violent crime to justify a platform of tough-on-crime measures, or passage of a specific law, this rhetoric can mask the actual cause of any increase in crime: changes in laws that criminalize more behaviors and send people to jail for longer periods.159”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [159]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“given the infrequent occurrence of serious violent crimes among Native youth”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because funding (whether from the federal government or from contract sources) is typically based à à à on the number of detainees held in the facility, tribes may feel pressure to keep the beds full, either through contracts or by placing youth from the community in the prison, whether or not their offenses actually require incarceration.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Funding for tribal detention facilities is typically based on the number of detainees held in the facility.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was partly a result of federal laws and policies, which limit the practical choices available to tribes and subtly influence the character of tribal juvenile justice systems.”
plainstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Tribes rely on the federal government for financial, personnel, and technical assistance to build their justice systems.
In the paper
“Native youth across all states are incarcerated at a rate of 329 per 100,000.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For sentences of one year or less, tribal courts must provide a fair hearing and due process of law”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [64]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Outside of Indian country, the past two decades have seen a gradual shift from a punitive focus on juvenile justice to a belief that children should be treated differently from adults, including avoiding incarceration whenever possible.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2011, the residential placement rate per 100,000 for American Indian and Alaska Native youth across all states was second only to the residential placement rate for African American youth.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Native youth had the highest case rate for liquor violations every year from 1995-2010.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [38]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For this reason, data sets that compare disposition of juvenile offenders by racial group often do not include enough Native American youth to make the results statistically significant.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“They can, however, stack sentences for multiple offenses for a total of up to nine years' imprisonment.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [63]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This data from the annual Survey of Jails in Indian Country includes detention centers, correctional facilities, and lockups, many of which house offenders pre-and post-adjudication.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Unlike most adult state and county systems, which typically have jails and juvenile detention facilities to house pretrial offenders and prisons or youth correctional facilities to house offenders post-adjudication, facilities in Indian country do not necessarily segregate offenders in this manner.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Native American people make up about 1% of the total national population.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“One reason for this may be the one-year sentence limitation that applied to all tribal prosecutions through 2010 and continues to apply in many cases”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“changes in the rate of commitment and the length of sentences, especially for drug crimes, explain the rise in incarceration to a far greater degree than does any change in offense or arrest rates.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In addition, the BIA is updating its Model Indian Juvenile Code to better incorporate alternatives to incarceration.170”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [170]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Among people who identify as Native alone or in combination with another race, only 22% live in a native area.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to the 2010 census, only 33% of people who identify solely as AI/AN live in a”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Recently, the Annie E. Casey Foundation's Juvenile Detention Alternatives Initiative ( JDAI), a major, privately funded effort to reduce reliance à à à on incarceration in juvenile justice systems, began a pilot Tribal JDAI project with the Mississippi Band of Choctaw.169”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [169]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The relative rate index for American Indian and Alaska Native youth placed outside the home for person offenses, which is a measure of how much more or less likely minority youth are to be placed out of home compared to white youth, has been above that of other minority groups from 1990-2010.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This means that tribal inmates are usually serving the equivalent of a misdemeanor sentence in another jurisdiction.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite widespread agreement that incarceration does little to reduce juvenile crime, is not necessary for nonviolent offenders, and may even be harming Native juvenile offenders, incarceration continued to be a centerpiece of tribal juvenile justice policy during the period described here.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Instead, the federal Bureau of Prisons contracts with state or local facilities to house juveniles under its jurisdiction, including Native American youth.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [75]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A 1997 federal report on Indian country law enforcement, for example, noted the lack of facilities suitable for juveniles.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [99]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the total number of facilities remained almost constant from 1999-2004, the number of stand-alone juvenile facilities likely remained constant at seven for each of these years.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 108
- Probably not a substantial claim. 60
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A minority of youth being held in these facilities are incarcerated as a result of violent offenses.More commonly, they are incarcerated for theft offenses and substance-abuse-related offenses such as driving under the influence, public intoxication, or other drug offenses.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, juveniles were 16 percent of the total inmate population in 2000, but only 8 percent in 2013.97”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [97]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The number of juveniles held in Indian country facilities, however, held steady or declined during the same time period, with a minority held for violent offenses.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Seven more juvenile facilities were slated to open in the coming years, and at least one of these was planned as a stand-alone juvenile facility.94”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [94]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Of a total of 164 juveniles held in sixteen designated juvenile facilities at mid-year, 23 percent (38) were being held for violent offenses 101 and five percent (9) were being held for property offenses.Twenty percent (33) were being held for drug or alcohol-related offenses.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [101]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Two dozen new facilities were built during this time period, resulting in a net increase of ten facilities.80”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [80]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prior to 2003, the mid-year count of juveniles was over three hundred in three different years.The number of juvenile inmates has not been higher than 257 in any year since 2007.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 2004, sixteen facilities held juveniles; eleven of these were stand-alone juvenile facilities, and others had sections specifically designed for juveniles.91”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [91]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 1998, twenty-two facilities held juveniles, seven of which were stand-alone juvenile facilities.90”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [90]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in table 2, the total number of inmates held in all facilities was 1,567 in 1998.That number rose to 2080 by 2002, then fell between 2003 and 2004.It increased substantially between 2004 and 2007, the same time period in which fifteen more facilities were added to the BIA' s inventory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The number of separate juvenile facilities in Indian country nearly doubled during the period covered here, while the number of juveniles being held in them decreased.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike the adult offender population, the number of juveniles held was lower in 2013 than it was fifteen years earlier.Indian country facilities held 303 juveniles in 1998 and 190 juveniles in 2013.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“During the same period, the BIA received $637 million for law enforcement services (an umbrella category that includes policing and detention/corrections but also covers other aspects of tribal justice systems), plus an additional $31.5 million specifically designated for operation, maintenance, and staffing of newly constructed facilities.104”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [104]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the following tables show, the number of facilities on tribal lands increased between 1998 and 2013, with about half of the net increase due to the construction of new juvenile facilities.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In 2013 there were thirty-four operational facilities authorized to hold juveniles.Of those, thirteen were stand-alone juvenile facilities, eleven included adults and juveniles in the same building, but employed separate staff for juveniles, 92 and ten housed adults and juveniles together.93”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [92]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [93]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By 2007, there were eighty-three facilities, and the number has fluctuated between seventy-nine and eighty-three since then.In 2013, there were seventy-nine facilities.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“during the fifteen-year period covered here, the number of secure juvenile correctional facilities in Indian country steadily increased, and tribes continue to push for funding to build even more.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, I represented a tribe seeking to compel the BIA to operate the newly constructed low-security juvenile facility on its reservation without requiring the tribe to retrofit the facility to meet the highest security standards.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In the intervening years, it has reached a high of 312, but has not been above 300 since 2004.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The best available federal data on Indian country facilities, though incomplete and contradictory, is adequate for the article's counts and trends.
- Not matched
In the paper
“both the Indian Law and Order Commission and the Attorney General' s Task Force on American Indian and Alaska Native Youth Exposed to Violence have strongly recommended that incarceration should be used only as a last resort for youth who pose a danger to themselves or the community, and that investments be made instead in alternatives to juvenile incarceration.48”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [48]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are more likely to drop out of school 27 and less likely to attain higher education.28”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [28]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, a 2014 report on the Wisconsin juvenile justice system found that Native youth are nearly twice as likely to be arrested and nearly twice as likely to be detained rolnIck | locked up 59 following arrest compared to white youth, with little change in the disparity between 2006 and 2012.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [43]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are likely to be abused 31 or to be victims of violent crime.32”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [31]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [32]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to the report, incarceration has little or no public safety benefit, wastes money, harms youth, and does not reduce recidivism.47”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [47]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In certain counties, the disparity was even greater: Native youth were more than four times as likely to be arrested in Brown county and nearly seven times as likely to be detained in Milwaukee county.43”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [43]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They are likely to contemplate and commit suicide.30”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A 2011 report by the Annie E. Casey Foundation presents a compelling case that incarceration is a bad policy for juvenile offenders because it is ineffective, unnecessary, and dangerous.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [47]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, prison construction has been driven by fear, including racialized perceptions of crime, and the increase in the number of prisoners is largely attributable to the criminalization of nonviolent behaviors that were previously addressed through means other than incarceration.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the fact that greater tribal authority is frequently offered as a solution to the particular problem of overincarceration relies on the assumption that tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones and will rely less on incarceration.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recommendations aimed at reducing incarceration and undoing some of the damage done to Native youth by the juvenile justice system have focused on the strategy of strengthening tribal justice systems, which are often assumed to be less likely to rely on incarceration to address juvenile delinquency.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones and will rely less on incarceration.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are overrepresented in foster care, 35 in arrests for certain offenses, 36 in petitions for status offenses, 37 especially liquor law violations, 38 in out-of-home delinquency placements, 39 in secure confinement, 40 and among youth prosecuted in the adult criminal system.41”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [36]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This approach recognizes that incarceration is “not effective as a deterrent to delinquent behavior” and that to center incarceration in the current approach to juvenile justice is “another infliction of violence” on Native children that reinforces their trauma.49”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [49]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tribal leaders working to build their juvenile justice systems between 1998 and 2013 were making policy decisions in an era when incarceration was seen as a major piece of juvenile justice policy across the country”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In state systems, juvenile justice policymakers now recommend replacing training schools and large incarceration facilities with smaller, regional therapeutic facilities as a model for improving juvenile justice and diverting non-dangerous offenders out of the system entirely.46”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [46]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“They are likely to face physical 25 and mental 26 health problems.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [26]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a general rule, a tribe at least has juvenile delinquency jurisdiction in any case in which it would have criminal jurisdiction if the offender were an adult.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Indeed, the Law and Order Commission specifically recommends removing Native children from federal and state jurisdiction whenever possible with the goal of “releasing Tribes from dysfunctional Federal and State controls and empowering them to provide locally accountable, culturally informed self-government,” echoing the recommendations of other experts.67”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [67]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Tribal youth who are adjudicated for status or delinquency offenses outside Indian country are generally subject to state jurisdiction, although they may also be subject to tribal jurisdiction if they are placed in foster care or for adoption as a result.58”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [58]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“This approach is consistent with the policy of self-determination espoused by the executive and legislative branches of the federal government since at least 1970, 68 the nation-building model embraced by political scientists and economists, 69 and the sovereignty principle that forms the bedrock of federal Indian law.70”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [68]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [69]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [70]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Federal law recognizes that the source of tribes' governing power is their inherent sovereignty, and that tribes consequently retain “those aspects of sovereignty not withdrawn by treaty or statute, or by implication as a necessary result of their dependent status.”54”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [54]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Again as a general rule, this includes offenses committed by any Indian person, whether or not a member of that tribe, 55 on land that qualifies as tribal territory.56”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [56]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This means that the decisions made by tribal governments in constructing a juvenile justice system will affect mainly Native youth within the tribe' s territory, and not Native youth living elsewhere or non-Native youth who commit offenses on tribal land.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is not clear from this data whether and how the investment in new facility construction is related to the increase in the inmate population in particular years, but the trends (more facilities and more inmates in those facilities) at least roughly correspond.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The precise scope of juvenile delinquency jurisdiction exercised by each tribe is a matter of tribal law.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A tribe' s juvenile delinquency jurisdiction is at least as broad as its criminal jurisdiction, and arguably broader.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tribal juvenile incarceration facilities today house mostly nonviolent offenders, particularly because violent and serious offenders are more likely to be prosecuted in federal court.137”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [137]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Building new prisons was framed as a critical step in upgrading and strengthening tribal justice systems, a way to keep inmates safe, and a response to violent crime.127”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [127]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Since 2004, an additional twenty-one detention facilities have been added to the BIA' s inventory, including at least two juvenile facilities.130”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [130]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Nationally, arrests of Native American youth for violent crimes have fallen since the mid-1990s, as have arrests for violent crime among all youth.138”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [138]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“the far more dramatic increase in the prison population was among nonviolent offenders.114 Most were convicted of nonviolent offenses involving drug possession, sale, or use.115”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [114]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [115]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Rules of criminal law are a primary means by which a sovereign prescribes rules of conduct and ensures a degree of safety, security, and interpersonal cooperation in a society composed of strangers.146”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [146]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Violent crime has since fluctuated, falling in the early 1980s, rising again in the late 1980s, and falling again in the early 1990s.116”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [116]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“By 2009, according to the 2011 report, the BIA's inventory included ninety-four facilities: twenty-three operated by the BIA, fifty-two operated by tribes under self-determination contracts, and nineteen operated by tribes under self-governance compacts.136”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [136]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Between 1997 and 2003, BIA budget documents state that eighteen facilities were constructed or upgraded, including at least six juvenile facilities.126”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2014, the Attorney General' s Task Force on Native Youth Exposed to Violence found most Native youth in the juvenile justice system are charged with low-level offenses that “normally would not be subject to detention,” but that “the lack of alternatives and diversion programs force the system to use detention as shelter.”109”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [109]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The Violent Crime Index rate for Native American youth was higher than it was for white youth in 1995, but by 2010 it had fallen below the rate for white youth.139”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [139]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For juvenile justice, the general shift toward imprisonment that began in the 1970s was followed by a second push for more punitive policies in the 1980s and 1990s, in which a brief rise in violent juvenile crime fed public fear, which translated into a demand for even harsher sentences.112”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [112]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Tracking this shift, federal laws authorized increasingly harsh penalties for federal crimes and prioritized incarceration at the state and local level.113”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The report also cited a general lack of law enforcement resources in Indian country, and a number of jails and prisons that did not meet minimum safety and security standards.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [120]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The investigation revealed an alarming number of fatalities, suicides, suicide attempts, injuries, and escapes, including several high-profile incidents involving juveniles, 128 and it criticized the BIA for poor oversight.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [128]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Violent crime did increase in the 1960s and 1970s, resulting in more violent offenders in prisons, but the far more dramatic increase in the prison population was among nonviolent offenders.114”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [114]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In order to build their justice systems, tribes rely on the federal government for financial, personnel and technical assistance, so Congressional and agency priorities drive tribal choices.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Tribes rely on the federal government for financial, personnel, and technical assistance to build their justice systems.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Across the United States, the number of prisons and the number of people in prison have both increased dramatically over the past several decades, 110 a shift that has been particularly acute with regard to juvenile offenders.111”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [110]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [111]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The investigation also criticized the agency' s management of money, finding that several newly built facilities remained unopened and that the Bureau could not properly account for millions of dollars.129”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [129]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although national data does not include youth under tribal jurisdiction, it provides a picture of the overall trend, and the tribal data summarized here does not suggest that violent crime is any more common among youth under tribal jurisdiction.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to that report, staffing shortages persisted and the BIA' s financial management system made it difficult to track how the money was spent.134”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [134]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Today, many of the crimes committed by Native youth might similarly be explained as a result of the criminalization of trauma.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Once the prison is open, it may require specially trained staff, so the opportunities for local employment may be slim until local people can be trained in prison management.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the tribal context, this happens in the form of heavier reliance on incarceration as a solution to juvenile delinquency by Native youth and by entering into contracts with other jurisdictions to rent facility space.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the scarce financial resources available in tribal communities, the limits on tribal incarceration imposed by federal law, and the types of offenses being committed by Native youth, directing money to secure facilities seems, at best, to be a poor choice of investment.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Native people were criminalized during this period for acts of resistance, arrested for vagrancy, grand larceny, and arson for burning down the jails that confined them or stealing horses and cattle from white settlers.163”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [163]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the juvenile context the number of offenders who might require imprisonment is even smaller, as even serious juvenile offenders may benefit from treatment and intervention services.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Only a small handful of offenders are so dangerous that they cannot be released into the community.
- Rests on an assumption: Even serious juvenile offenders may benefit from treatment and intervention services.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During the time period covered in this article, more tribes requested funding for construction of incarceration facilities than could be accommodated even by Congress' authorization of new money for correctional facility construction and operation that peaked in 2003 to 2004.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Native people were categorized as deviant as a class by settlers who defined their cultures as dysfunctional, which rendered them vulnerable to a range of coercive forms of state intervention intended to fix those deviant cultures.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“During the same era as the Major Crimes Act, the BIA created the Courts of Indian Offenses.The first Westernstyle courts in Indian country, these courts were viewed as vehicles of education and assimilation.161”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [161]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relying on income from contract beds would mean building a larger facility than is required to meet tribal (or even regional) needs, and it may also require a facility built to accommodate and control more violent and serious offenders than the population under tribal jurisdiction.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For juveniles, this population is likely to be more violent than the youth in the local community.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The number of secure detention facilities in Indian country has grown during this time period, and there is evidence that the institutions themselves are more restrictive (although they may also be safer) than they were two decades ago.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The confluence of factors leading to our current overreliance on incarceration is not simple, but the myth of a terrible crime wave necessitating a response of imprisonment has been convincingly discredited in the nontribal context.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, behavior directly related to trauma often brings those youth under the jurisdiction of tribal juvenile delinquency laws, and the resulting juvenile crime statistics are put forth as evidence that more juvenile detention facilities are needed.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Ross provides a pointed explanation of criminal justice as a mechanism of racial control over Native Americans.152”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [152]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Gilmore, for example, has described how the initiative process, driven by rhetoric about fear of crime, was responsible for several key legislative changes that helped increase the population of prisoners in California, including a three-strikes law and sentence enhancements for gang members.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Once they are built, prisons can be self-perpetuating.They create employment and revenue, and communities become dependent on them as profit generators and sources of jobs.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“People of color today are more likely to be imprisoned than white people for the same types of offenses, and they tend to be imprisoned for longer periods.151”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [151]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet, once the facilities are open, they may consume most of the available justice system resources.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The size and security level may be much greater than what is needed to accommodate the local population.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Bringing in outside offenders, staff, and even administrators can dramatically impact the community.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Laws such as the Indian Reorganization Act encouraged tribes to remake their governments and rewrite their constitutions in the mold of a business council, and Public Law 280 gave certain state governments the authority to extend their criminal justice systems into Indian country.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is disconcerting, then, that the arc of tribal juvenile justice policy over the past fifteen years has continued to follow the path of highlighting crime statistics, building more facilities to accommodate this perceived need, finding problems with the facilities, and directing more funding toward facilities in order to address the problems.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Worse yet, efforts to keep prisons full can be too successful, resulting in overcrowding and necessitating the building of new prisons.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lynch, who wrote about Arizona' s prison boom, described the way that concerns about the cost of prisons combined with tough-on-crime rhetoric in order to birth a particular kind of prison, one that favors security, punishment, and extraction of labor from prisoners.165”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [165]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, Alexander argues that mass incarceration replaced the Jim Crow laws that replaced slavery as a legal method of ensuring the continued subordination and control of African Americans.150”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [150]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Prisons take on a life of their own in this cycle: once they are built, governments find prisoners to fill them, often creating criminals out of people who would have been dealt with through noncriminal laws in an earlier era, or incarcerating offenders who might be better served through alternative measures.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A tribe seeking to maximize the economic impact of a prison may build it to accommodate the needs of a nonlocal population.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Lichtenstein, writing about prison expansion in the southwestern United States, emphasized the role of economics and described the various players, from governmental entities to private firms, that profited from prison expansion.166”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [166]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2010, juveniles of all races were most likely to be waived into criminal court for person offenses; among those adjudicated for person offenses, Native American youth were more likely than youth of any other racial group to be waived in.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“AI/AN-only are 0.8% of the total population, and AI/AN+ are 1.7% of the total population”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This means that tribes are speaking up about, and federal officials are listening to, their desire to depart from the mass incarceration model of criminal and juvenile justice that has dominated in jurisdictions across the United States for the past thirty to forty years.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 2007-2011, the AIAN-only poverty rate was 27%, compared to 14.3% of the total population and 11.6% of whites.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [23]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In Nebraska, Native youth are incarcerated at a rate of 954 per 100,000, compared to 203/100,000 for all youth and 798/100,000 for youth of color.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Tribes in most cases may not sentence offenders to more than one year of imprisonment or impose a fine of more than $5,000.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [63]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This rate is greater than the rate for white youth (98) and for all youth of color (263).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, as this article has pointed out, mass incarceration is also about a cycle that is structural: the powerful pull to invest in prisons, the efforts required to keep them open, and the way efforts to fill prisons can create a cycle that leads to the need for more prisons and brings more and more vulnerable people into the cycle of incarceration.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What could be a solution to the overincarceration of Native youth-strengthening and expanding tribal juvenile justice systems-might actually be contributing to the problem.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In 2011, the confinement rate for Native youth was 376 per 100,000, compared to 225 per 100,000 for all youth.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Both laws strengthen tribal criminal justice systems by enabling tribes to imprison more categories of people and to impose longer terms of imprisonment.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [16]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And yet, the number of secure juvenile facilities in Indian country grew alongside the prison boom that was occurring elsewhere.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“If a defendant faces a potential sentence of one to three years, tribes must also provide indigent defendants with free defense counsel, they must make their laws publicly available, and they must have law-trained and certified judges, and a jury trial”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [64]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Although most Indian country facilities are federal facilities in the sense that they are operated, or at least funded, by the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs, Native youth adjudicated in federal courts are not held in these facilities.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [75]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In South Dakota, Native youth are incarcerated at a rate of 1,239 per 100,000, compared with 373/100,000 for all youth and 935/100,000 for youth of color.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“If the tribe complies with certain additional requirements, it may incarcerate offenders to up to three years, and impose fines of up to $15,000, per offense.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [63]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Native youth experience disproportionately harsh sanctions at multiple decision points, including being more likely to be placed out of the home and more likely to be placed in secure confinement.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 1997, the confinement rate for Native youth was 490 per 100,000, compared to 356 per 100,000 for all youth.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Native youth are also less likely than white youth to be given probation and more likely to be detained and/or placed in a residential facility.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A 2011 report by the US Department of the Interior, Office of Inspector General states that the Bureau's 2009 inventory included ninetyfour facilities.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of the Interior, Office of the Inspector General, Bureau of Indian Affairs Detention Facilities (2011)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“BIA's Law Enforcement Services was”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [77]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The Bureau' s budget for detention increased from $43.8 million in 2005 to $64.7 million in 2009, and the appropriations language did not specify how the funding was to be used.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of the Interior, Office of the Inspector General, Bureau of Indian Affairs Detention Facilities (2011)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“20.7% of AI/AN-only people over the age of 25 lacked a high school diploma/GED, compared with 13.2% of the total over-25 population”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Census Bureau, 2014 American Community Survey
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the 2011-2012 school year, 68% of AI/AN students graduated, compared to 81% of the total population”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data (CCD)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2014, the rate of child abuse among AIAN-only victims was 13.4/1,000, compared to 8.4/1,000 for white victims.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of Health and Human Services, ACF Children's Bureau, Child Maltreatment 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, the discrepancy between the Jails in Indian Country 2009 count (80), and the count provided in the 2011 report (94) is significant and unexplained.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 2014, the AI/AN-only poverty rate was estimated at 28.3%, versus 15.5% for the general population.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Census Bureau, 2014 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates (2014)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Although the 2009 report provides data for eighty facilities, the 2010 report states that the 2009 numbers were based on data from only seventy-nine facilities”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Todd D. Minton, Jails in Indian Country, 2010
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2012, the violent victimization rate for American Indians and Alaska Natives was 46.9/k.This was 1.37 times the black rate (34.2/1,000), 1.86 times the white rate (25.2/100,000), and 2.86 times the API rate (16.4/1,000), excluding those who identify as mixed race”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Jennifer Truman, Lynn Langton, and Michael Planty, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Criminal Victimization, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“more than half the of the prisons operating today were built in the last 20 years”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mauer, Race to Incarcerate
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, juveniles from all but one tribe may be adjudicated in the state system.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Zimring compared the rate of imprisonment per 100,000 people in 1970 and 2007 and found a fivefold increase.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Franklin E. Zimring, "The Scale of Imprisonment in the United States"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“From 1999 until 2009, the Correctional Facilities on Tribal Lands grant program provided funding only for construction of and upgrades to locked tribal facilities, meaning that a tribe could not access any of this funding for juvenile justice unless it planned to invest in incarceration. After 2009, the program was reauthorized and renamed the Correctional Systems and Correctional Alternatives on”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of Justice and US Department of Interior, Tribal Law and Order Act: Long Term Plan to Build and Enhance Tribal Justice Systems 33 (2011)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In addition to eleven juvenile-only facilities, the Inspector General' s report states that thirty-four facilities housed a combination of adults and juveniles.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of the Interior Office of Inspector General, "Neither Safe Nor Secure"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2012, AI/AN-only people over the age of 12 experienced the highest rate of substance abuse, at 21.8%”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Appropriations for the Tribal Youth Program decreased to $10 million for 2005, increased to $14 million in 2008, increased again to $25 million in 2009 and 2010 (although only $12 million was awarded in grants in 2009), then fell again, with appropriations ranging from $5 million to $10 million in 2012-16.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, FY 2005 Tribal Youth Program Announcement (2005)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites OJJDP Annual Report 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kristin Finklea, "Juvenile Justice Funding Trends"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Between 1998 and 2004, three new facilities were built, six closed, two were abandoned, and two were combined into one; see Minton, Jails in Indian Country, 2004, 7. Between 2004 and 2013, twenty-one new facilities were built and eleven were closed”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Minton, Jails in Indian Country, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Todd D. Minton, Jails in Indian Country, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Twenty-nine facilities held juveniles at some point during 1998, and 43 were authorized to do so, but many of these youth were held in adult facilities that housed only one or two juveniles”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [90]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The best available federal data on Indian country facilities, though incomplete and contradictory, is adequate for the article's counts and trends.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to available sources, in 2013 there were two more stand-alone juvenile facilities than in 2004. In 2013, there were also eleven facilities with separate areas for juveniles, but the available information does not indicate how many of these were newly constructed. A follow-up report by the Inspector General issued just prior to this article' s publi- cation states that sixteen new juven”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of the Interior, Office of the Inspector General, Bureau of Indian Affairs Funded and/or Operated Detention Programs (2016)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Wisconsin is home to eleven tribes, all but one of which are subject to Public Law 280.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Robin Lecoanet, Daphne Kuo, Stephanie Lindsley, and Sarah Seibold, Disproportionate Minority Contact in Wisconsin's Juvenile Justice System
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In 2012, 13.9% of AI/AN-only people over the age of 25 had a bachelor' s degree or higher, compared to 29.3% of the general population”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Census Bureau, 2014 American Community Survey
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The Survey of Jails in Indian Country was not conducted in 2005 or 2006.”
- Also stated in: § 94. AAIA, List of Indian Country Juvenile Detention Facilities. · plain
“The Survey of Jails in Indian Country was not conducted in 2005 or 2006”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [95]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Minton, Jails in Indian Country, 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Also stated in: § 94. AAIA, List of Indian Country Juvenile Detention Facilities. · plain
In the paper
“The homicide rate, which is considered the most reliably reported, doubled.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mauer, Race to Incarcerate
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Using 2011 statistics for people younger than 25 years, the AI/AN suicide rate was 13.06/100,000, which was more than double the white rate (6.11/100,000), almost quadruple the black rate (3.31/100,000), and more than quadruple the Asian rate (2.85/100,000)”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, WISQARS dataset
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“more than half of the juveniles prosecuted in federal courts and nearly all of the juveniles prosecuted in tribal courts are Native American.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rolnick, "Untangling the Web," 82-102
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to the information collected by AAIA, four facilities authorized to hold both juveniles and adults were scheduled to become operational in FY 2014, and two adult/juveniles facilities and one juvenile-only facility were scheduled to become operational in the indeterminate future.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [94]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The best available federal data on Indian country facilities, though incomplete and contradictory, is adequate for the article's counts and trends.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The Tribal Youth Program was established in 1999 and was funded at $10 million in 1999, $12.5 million in 2000 and 2001, and $12.47 million in 2002”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kay McKinney, "OJJDP's Tribal Youth Initiatives"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Then, between 1972 and 1997, the United States prison population increased 500%, from 200,000 to 1.2 million”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mauer, Race to Incarcerate
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to a report issued in September 2004 by the Department of the Interior, Office of the Inspector General, there were seventy-two facilities in the BIA' s inventory.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [77]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: The best available federal data on Indian country facilities, though incomplete and contradictory, is adequate for the article's counts and trends.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between 1999 and 2014, the reports do not include information on the number of facilities authorized to hold juveniles and the type of authorization.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Feld describes how, in the 1960s and 1970s, the justification for juvenile confinement shifted away from the idea of indeterminate sentences with a goal of rehabilitation and began to favor the kind of fixed, punitive sentences used in the adult criminal justice system.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Barry C. Feld, "A Century of Juvenile Justice"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Compared to the general population, those served by the Indian Health Service are 60% more likely to die of suicide”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Indian Health Service Newsroom, "Disparities"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to Mauer, until 1970 the prison population in the United States had remained relatively stable for decades.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mauer, Race to Incarcerate
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Beginning in 2004, the reports do not state whether or how many juveniles were held as adults in Indian country facilities.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [96]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Although information on the number of facilities authorized to hold juveniles and the type of authorization was not included in the 2004 survey, the Inspector General' s 2004 report states that eleven facilities housed only juveniles”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites US Department of the Interior Office of Inspector General, "Neither Safe Nor Secure"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones and will rely less on incarceration.
“relies on the assumption that tribal juvenile justice systems will automatically be less punitive than nontribal ones.”
“There are several reasons to assume that tribes would rely less on incarceration.”
“which are often assumed to be less likely to rely on incarceration to address juvenile delinquency.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Little is known about whether youth adjudicated in tribal courts experience less incarceration and about the role of incarceration in tribally run systems and potential barriers to reducing incarceration there.
“Little is known, however, about whether youth adjudicated in tribal courts experience less incarceration and, more broadly, about the role of incarceration in tribally run systems and potential barriers to reducing incarceration there.”
The paper relies on this without support.
All facilities included in the federal inventory are built to the highest security level and are functionally equivalent to juvenile prisons.
“To the best of my knowledge, all of the facilities included in the federal inventory are built to the highest security level.In other words, they are functionally equivalent to juvenile prisons.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most tribal communities have high unemployment rates and very little available funding for government infrastructure.
“Most tribal communities have high unemployment rates and very little available funding for government infrastructure.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Tribes rely on the federal government for financial, personnel, and technical assistance to build their justice systems.
“In order to build their justice systems, tribes rely on the federal government for financial, personnel and technical assistance, so Congressional and agency priorities drive tribal choices.”
The paper relies on this without support.
For Indian tribes, local poverty and federal funding shortages create an atmosphere in which economic development and finding funding for core government programs is an enormous concern.
“For Indian tribes, local poverty and federal funding shortages create an atmosphere in which economic development and finding funding for core government programs is an enormous concern.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Funding for tribal detention facilities is typically based on the number of detainees held in the facility.
“Because funding (whether from the federal government or from contract sources) is typically based à à à on the number of detainees held in the facility, tribes may feel pressure to keep the beds full”
The paper relies on this without support.
Only a small handful of offenders are so dangerous that they cannot be released into the community.
“Only a small handful of offenders are so dangerous that they cannot be released into the community.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Even serious juvenile offenders may benefit from treatment and intervention services.
“as even serious juvenile offenders may benefit from treatment and intervention services”
The paper relies on this without support.
Imprisonment is not the only option for most offenders.
“imprisonment, though sometime publicly favored, is not the only option for most”
The paper relies on this without support.
The best available federal data on Indian country facilities, though incomplete and contradictory, is adequate for the article's counts and trends.
“This article therefore relies on the best available information, recognizing that the information is incomplete and at times contradictory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Tribal youth who require residential treatment are often sent to state, local, or private programs.
“Tribal youth who require residential treatment are often sent to state, local, or private programs.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Incarceration of Youth under Tribal Jurisdiction
“The total number of people held in Indian country facilities has remained relatively level since, fluctuating between 2,100 and 2,300.”
§ Incarceration of Youth under Tribal Jurisdiction
“2011 2239 2012 2364 2013 2287”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 94. AAIA, List of Indian Country Juvenile Detention Facilities.
“Because the total number of facilities remained almost constant from 1999-2004, the number of stand-alone juvenile facilities likely remained constant at seven for each of these years.”
§ Incarceration of Youth under Tribal Jurisdiction
“In 2004, sixteen facilities held juveniles; eleven of these were stand-alone juvenile facilities, and others had sections specifically designed for juveniles.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Incarceration of Youth under Tribal Jurisdiction
“By 2007, there were eighty-three facilities, and the number has fluctuated between seventy-nine and eighty-three since then.”
§ Incarceration of Youth under Tribal Jurisdiction
“2010 75 2011 75 2012 80”
Citations
Cites
The Growth of Incarceration in the United States
National Research Council (2014) · National Academies Press eBooks · doi:10.17226/18613 · Cited by 648
No Place for Kids: The Case for Reducing Juvenile Incarceration
Mendel, R. A. (2015) · Issue Lab (Candid) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.1.3332.6244 · Cited by 179
American Youth Violence: A Cautionary Tale
Zimring, F. E. (2013) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/670399 · Cited by 21
A Century of Juvenile Justice: A Work in Progress or a Revolution that Failed?
Feld, B. C. (2007) · eYLS (Yale Law School) · Cited by 9
Federal Criminal Law and Tribal Self-Determination
Washburn, K. K. (2005) · UNM’s Digital Repository (University of New Mexico) · Cited by 8
Tribal Self-Determination at the Crossroads
Washburn, K. K. (2006) · UNM’s Digital Repository (University of New Mexico) · Cited by 8
Tribal Criminal Jurisdiction Beyond Citizenship and Blood
Rolnick, A. C. (2015) · University of Oklahoma College of Law - Digital Commons (University of Oklahoma) · Cited by 4
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Carole Goldberg, Duane Champagne, and Heather Valdez Singleton, Final Report: Law Enforcement and Justice Under Public Law 280 (2007), 9, ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ nij/grants/222585.pdf. As a result, juveniles from all but one tribe may be adjudicated in the state system.
- From 1999 until 2009, the Correctional Facilities on Tribal Lands grant program provided funding only for construction of and upgrades to locked tribal facilities, meaning that a tribe could not access any of this funding for juvenile justice unless it planned to invest in incarceration. After 2009, the program was reauthorized and renamed the Correctional Systems and Correctional Alternatives on Tribal Lands program. Grants can now be used to fund planning, construction, and upgrades for multi-purpose justice facilities and alternative facilities. US Department of Justice and US Department of Interior, Tribal Law and Order Act: Long Term Plan to Build and Enhance Tribal Justice Systems 33 (2011), 23. 104. Ibid., 37. 105. The Bureau' s budget for detention increased from $43.8 million in 2005 to $64.7 million in 2009, and the appropriations language did not specify how the funding was to be used. US Department of the Interior, Office of the Inspector General, Bureau of Indian Affairs Detention Facilities (2011), 2. 106. The Tribal Youth Program was established in 1999 and was funded at $10 million in 1999, $12.5 million in 2000 and 2001, and $12.47 million in 2002; see Kay McKinney, "OJJDP' s Tribal Youth Initiatives," OJJDP Juvenile Justice Bulletin (May 2003), ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/193763/pg1. html. The funding level remained at $12 million annually in 2003 and 2004. For 2003 and 2004, the OJJDP' s annual report describe two other funding sources for juvenile justice in Indian country: the TYP Mental Health Initiative provided funding for substance abuse and mental health services, and the Tribal Juvenile Accountability Discretionary Grant Program, which was introduced in 2004 to promote reforms that "hold AI/AN youth accountable for their actions;" see US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, OJJDP Annual Report 2003-2004, 45, ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/206630.pdf. This program is a subset of the Juvenile Accountability Block Grant to states, which can be used to fund expansion, renovation, or staffing of incarcera- tion facilities. US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, "Juvenile Accountability Block Grant Program: Program Purposes Areas," ojjdp.gov/jabg/purpose. html. Appropriations for the Tribal Youth Program decreased to $10 million for 2005, increased to $14 million in 2008, increased again to $25 million in 2009 and 2010 (although only $12 million was awarded in grants in 2009), then fell again, with appropriations ranging from $5 million to $10 million in 2012-16. US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, FY 2005 Tribal Youth Program Announcement (2005), http://www.ojjdp.gov/funding/fy2005typ. pdf; OJJDP Annual Report 2009, 26, ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/229305.pdf;
- as part of the Tribal Law and Order Act, but that authorization ended in fiscal year 2015; see Public Law No. 11-211, §246. 107. Tribal youth who require residential treatment are often sent to state, local, or private programs. 108. Association on American Indian Affairs, "Federal Funding for Tribal Detention Facilities: Source of Funding & Limitations on Its Use" (2014), indian-affairs.org/uploads/5/4/7/6/54761515/ fedfundtribaldetenfacdoc.pdf. 109. Attorney General' s Advisory Committee, Ending Violence, 119. 110. Lynch, Sunbelt Justice, 3; Marc Mauer, Race to Incarcerate: The Sentencing Project (New York: The New Press, 1999), 19-21.
- According to Mauer, until 1970 the prison population in the United States had remained relatively stable for decades. Policymakers had even proposed a moratorium on new prison construction, and several juvenile prisons were closed; see pages 15-40. Then, between 1972 and 1997, the United States prison population increased 500%, from 200,000 to 1.2 million; see page 19. Prisoner populations and prison construction went hand in hand; more than half the of the prisons operating today were built in the last 20 years; see page 9. Zimring compared the rate of imprisonment per 100,000 people in 1970 and 2007 and found a fivefold increase. He describes this increase as "a growth in rates of imprisonment that has never been recorded in the history of developed nations" and points out that the 2007 imprisonment rate was "four times the highest level of imprisonment in the four decades prior to 1970." Franklin E. Zimring, "The Scale of Imprisonment in the United States: Twentieth Century Patterns and Twenty-First Century Prospects," The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, vol. 100, no. 3 (2010), 1,230, scholarlycommons.law.northwestern. edu/jclc/vol100/iss3/17/. 111. Feld describes how, in the 1960s and 1970s, the justification for juvenile confinement shifted away from the idea of indeterminate sentences with a goal of rehabilitation and began to favor the kind of fixed, punitive sentences used in the adult criminal justice system.
- Loic Wacquant, Prisons of Poverty (University of Minnesota Press 2010);
- Priscilla A. Ocen, "The New Racially Restrictive Covenant: Race, Welfare and the Policing of Black Women in Public Housing," UCLA Law Review 59, no. 6 (2012), http://www.uclalawreview.org/pdf/59-6-4.pdf;
- Dorothy E. Roberts, "Prison, Foster Care, and the Systematic Punishment of Black Mothers," UCLA Law Review 59, no. 6 (2012), uclalawreview.org/ pdf/59-6-2.pdf. à à à 158.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Walker, L. A., Bokenkamp, K., & Devereaux, T. S. (2021) · Affilia · doi:10.1177/0886109920985158 · Cited by 10
“…schools and criminal justice systems in settler colonial nations, like the United States, were built with surveillance, discipline, and policing of Indigenous populations as a means of subjugation, assimilation, and social control (O’Brien et al., 2020; Richie & Martensen, 2020; Rolnick, 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialRolnick, A. C. (2024) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220.2023.2297036 · Cited by 3
“Indigenous behavior has long been labeled as criminal by settler governments as a way to punish, and thereby eradicate, behavior associated with tribal cultural and political identification (Cunneen & Tuari, 2016; Rolnick, 2016a; Ross, 1998; Walker et al., 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTrauma Informed Delinquency Interventions for Native Children
Rolnick, A. C., & Sekaquaptewa, P. (2022) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1017/jme.2023.16 · Cited by 1
Self-citationElton, R., & Been, A. (2021) · International Journal of English and Cultural Studies · doi:10.11114/ijecs.v5i1.5513
Cox, A. L., & Abrams, L. S. (2021) · Palgrave studies in prisons and penology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68759-5_1
Metadata
- Authors
- Rolnick, A. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rolnick, Addie C.
- Venue
- American Indian Culture and Research Journal
- Publisher
- California Digital Library (CDL)
- Published
- 2016-01-01
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 55-92
- ISSN
- 0161-6463 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2466685921
- Semantic Scholar
- cc11b93fcc43205b1dad1e241d922a5e8676b062
- Cited by
- 8
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Indian Culture and Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- Scholarly Commons - UNLV Boyd Law (University of Nevada, Las Vegas) (submittedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Keywords
- Native American youth, juvenile detention, mass incarceration, fear of crime, racism, non-violent crime, alternative programs, tribal courts
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