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EFFECTS OF BIODIVERSITY ON ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING: A CONSENSUS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE
Open accessAbstract
Humans are altering the composition of biological communities through a variety of activities that increase rates of species invasions and species extinctions, at all scales, from local to global. These changes in components of the Earth's biodiversity cause concern for ethical and aesthetic reasons, but they also have a strong potential to alter ecosystem properties and the goods and services they provide to humanity. Ecological experiments, observations, and theoretical developments show that ecosystem properties depend greatly on biodiversity in terms of the functional characteristics of organisms present in the ecosystem and the distribution and abundance of those organisms over space and time. Species effects act in concert with the effects of climate, resource availability, and disturbance regimes in influencing ecosystem properties. Human activities can modify all of the above factors; here we focus on modification of these biotic controls. The scientific community has come to a broad consensus on many aspects of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, including many points relevant to management of ecosystems. Further progress will require integration of knowledge about biotic and abiotic controls on ecosystem properties, how ecological communities are structured, and the forces driving species extinctions and invasions. To strengthen links to policy and management, we also need to integrate our ecological knowledge with understanding of the social and economic constraints of potential management practices. Understanding this complexity, while taking strong steps to minimize current losses of species, is necessary for responsible management of Earth's ecosystems and the diverse biota they contain. Based on our review of the scientific literature, we are certain of the following conclusions: 1) Species' functional characteristics strongly influence ecosystem properties. Functional characteristics operate in a variety of contexts, including effects of dominant species, keystone species, ecological engineers, and interactions among species (e.g., competition, facilitation, mutualism, disease, and predation). Relative abundance alone is not always a good predictor of the ecosystem-level importance of a species, as even relatively rare species (e.g., a keystone predator) can strongly influence pathways of energy and material flows. 2) Alteration of biota in ecosystems via species invasions and extinctions caused by human activities has altered ecosystem goods and services in many well-documented cases. Many of these changes are difficult, expensive, or impossible to reverse or fix with technological solutions. 3) The effects of species loss or changes in composition, and the mechanisms by which the effects manifest themselves, can differ among ecosystem properties, ecosystem types, and pathways of potential community change. 4) Some ecosystem properties are initially insensitive to species loss because (a) ecosystems may have multiple species that carry out similar functional roles, (b) some species may contribute relatively little to ecosystem properties, or (c) properties may be primarily controlled by abiotic environmental conditions. 5) More species are needed to insure a stable supply of ecosystem goods and services as spatial and temporal variability increases, which typically occurs as longer time periods and larger areas are considered. We have high confidence in the following conclusions: 1) Certain combinations of species are complementary in their patterns of resource use and can increase average rates of productivity and nutrient retention. At the same time, environmental conditions can influence the importance of complementarity in structuring communities. Identification of which and how many species act in a complementary way in complex communities is just beginning. 2) Susceptibility to invasion by exotic species is strongly influenced by species composition and, under similar environmental conditions, generally decreases with increasing species richness. However, several other factors, such as propagule pressure, disturbance regime, and resource availability also strongly influence invasion success and often override effects of species richness in comparisons across different sites or ecosystems. 3) Having a range of species that respond differently to different environmental perturbations can stabilize ecosystem process rates in response to disturbances and variation in abiotic conditions. Using practices that maintain a diversity of organisms of different functional effect and functional response types will help preserve a range of management options. Uncertainties remain and further research is necessary in the following areas: 1) Further resolution of the relationships among taxonomic diversity, functional diversity, and community structure is important for identifying mechanisms of biodiversity effects. 2) Multiple trophic levels are common to ecosystems but
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The Implications of Experimental Design for Biodiversity Manipulations
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Self-citation12. Linking Soil Microbial Communities and Ecosystem Functioning
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The Functioning of European Grassland Ecosystems: Potential Benefits of Biodiversity to Agriculture
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Phenological complementarity, species diversity, and ecosystem function
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Multi-trophic dynamics and ecosystem processes
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Self-citationProductivity and complementarity in grassland microcosms of varying diversity
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Self-citationExperimental studies on the evolution of niche in successional plant populations.
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Stemming the Tide of Invading Species
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Keeping Paradise Safe for the Natives
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Self-citationSpecies vs community perspectives in biodiversity experiments
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A Biotic Control Perspective on Nitrate Contamination of Groundwater from Agricultural Production
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Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity
Cardinale, B. J., Duffy, J. E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D. U., Perrings, C., Venail, P., Narwani, A., Mace, G. M., Tilman, D., Wardle, D. A., et al. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature11148 · Cited by 7,457
Self-citationImpacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services
Worm, B., Barbier, E. B., Beaumont, N., Duffy, J. E., Folke, C., Halpern, B. S., Jackson, J. B. C., Lotze, H. K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S. R., et al. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1132294 · Cited by 4,544
Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt
Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., Polasky, S., & Hawthorne, P. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1152747 · Cited by 3,902
Microbial diversity drives multifunctionality in terrestrial ecosystems
Delgado-Baquerizo, M., Maestre, F. T., Reich, P. B., Jeffries, T. C., Gaitan, J. J., Encinar, D., Berdugo, M., Campbell, C. D., & Singh, B. K. (2016) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms10541 · Cited by 2,624
Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning and services
Balvanera, P., Pfisterer, A. B., Buchmann, N., He, J., Nakashizuka, T., Raffaelli, D., & Schmid, B. (2006) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00963.x · Cited by 2,650
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Hooper, D. U., Chapin, F. S., Ewel, J. J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., Lawton, J. H., Lodge, D. M., Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Schmid, B., Setälä, H., Symstad, A. J., Vandermeer, J., & Wardle, D. A.
- Affiliations
- Western Washington University (US)
- University of Alaska Fairbanks (US)
- US Forest Service (US)
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Natural Environment Research Council (GB)
- University of Notre Dame (US)
- École Normale Supérieure - PSL (FR)
- Columbia University (US)
- University of Helsinki (FI)
- United States Geological Survey (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Hooper, D. U.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Ecological Monographs
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2005-02
- Volume
- 75
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-35
- ISSN
- 0012-9615 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2103317434
- Semantic Scholar
- 22b7cd42eab103c1fb75da08458733b5fbb992e9
- Cited by
- 8,046
- References
- 373
- Citations by year
- 2026: 270 · 2025: 343 · 2024: 388 · 2023: 421 · 2022: 398 · 2021: 492 · 2020: 485 · 2019: 525 · 2018: 444 · 2017: 443 · 2016: 421 · 2015: 463 · 2014: 434 · 2013: 436 · 2012: 386
- FWCI
- 186.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Ecological Monographs (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (9974159, 0213187)
- Ecological Society of America
- European Science Foundation
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Land Use and Ecosystem Services
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Ecosystem dynamics and resilience
- Keywords
- biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, biological invasions, species extinction, ecosystem services, functional traits, keystone species, species interactions, community assembly, alternative stable states, ecosystem resilience, ecosystem management, human impact on biodiversity, disturbance regimes, rare species
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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