CoChat
Sign Up
PreprintCited by 68Crime Patterns and InterventionsPolicing Practices and PerceptionsCriminal Justice and Penology

Saturation Foot-Patrol in a High-Violence Area: A Quasi-Experimental Evaluation

Open access
Piza, Eric, O'Hara, Brian A.·2014·Justice Quarterly
DOI 10.21428/cb6ab371.1d2aeed0
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

This study incorporates a quasi-experimental design to evaluate a saturation foot-patrol initiative in Newark, NJ. Violent crime was measured for one year prior and during the initiative within the target area, a surrounding catchment area, and two separate control areas. The overall findings provide further support for foot-patrol as a crime prevention tactic. Total street violence as well as the disaggregate categories of murder, shootings, and nondomestic aggravated assault decreased within the target area absent of any displacement effects. However, robbery suffered from substantial levels of both temporal and spatial displacement, showing saturation foot-patrol to have varying impact on different types of street violence. This finding suggests that police should design large-scale foot-patrol initiatives in a manner that does not allow offenders, particularly robbers, to easily gauge the scope of the intervention and identify alternate crime opportunities.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.21428/cb6ab371.1d2aeed0

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • For Operation Impact in Newark (Piza and O'Hara, 2014), no threats to the integrity of the treatment were reported.

    “No threats to the integrity of the treatment reported”

    From Hot spots policing of small geographic areas effects on crime (2019) · cites this paper as Piza and O'Hara (2014)

    The Officer Enforcement Activity section reports declining enforcement activity during the study period and says the precise nature and scope of that activity were unknown. The Policy Implications and Conclusion section also reports that, from July 2009, patrols were frequently canceled or ran below full strength. Although that was after the one-year evaluation period, the paper does report threats to the integrity of Operation Impact's implementation. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

No references could be resolved yet.

Research works printed but not linked: 63

  1. Barr, R., & Pease, K. (1990). Crime placement, displacement and deflection. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice. A review of research (Vol. 12, pp. 277-318). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  2. Bernasco, W., & Block, R. (2011). Robberies in Chicago: A block-level analysis of the influence of crime generators, crime attractors, and offender anchor points. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 48(1), 33-57.
  3. Block, R., & Block, C. (1995). Space, place, and crime: Hotspot areas and hot places of liquor related crime. In J. Eck & D. Weisburd (Eds.), Crime and place. Crime prevention studies (Vol. 4, pp. 145-184).
  4. Bowers, W., & Hirsch, J. (1987). The impact of foot patrol staffing on crime and disorder in Boston: An unmet promise. American Journal of Police, 6, 17-44.
  5. Bowers, K., & Johnson, S. (2003). Measuring the geographical displacement and diffusion of benefit effects of crime prevention activity. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19(3), 275- 301.
  6. Braga, A. (2008). Crime prevention research review No. 2: Police enforcement strategies to prevent crime in hot spot areas. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
  7. Braga, A. (2010). Setting a higher standard for the evaluation of problem-oriented policing initiatives. Criminology & Public Policy, 9(1), 173-182.
  8. Braga, A., & Bond, B. (2008). Policing crime and disorder hot spots: A randomized con-trolled trial. Criminology, 46(3), 577-607.
  9. Braga, A., Hureau, D., & Papachristos, A. (2011). The relevance of micro places to city-wide robbery trends: A longitudinal analysis of robbery incidents at street corners and block faces in Boston. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 48(1), 7-32.
  10. Braga, A., Papachristos, A., & Hureau, D. (2010). The concentration and stability of gun violence at micro places in Boston, 1980-2008. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 26(1), 33-53.
  11. Braga, A., & Weisburd, D. (2010). Policing problem places: Crime hot spots and effective prevention. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  12. Brantingham, P. L., & Brantingham, P. J. (1993). Environment, routine, and situation: Toward a pattern theory of crime. In R. Clarke & M. Felson (Eds.), Routine activity and rational choice, advances in criminological theory (Vol. 5, pp. 259-294). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
  13. Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. L. (1995). Criminality of place: Crime generators and crime attractors. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 3(3), 1-26.
  14. Brantingham, P. J., & Brantingham, P. J. (2003). Anticipating the displacement of crime using the principles of environmental criminology. In M. Smith & D. Cornish (Eds.), Theory for practice in situational crime prevention: Crime prevention studies (Vol. 16, pp. 119-148). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  15. D. Weisburd, J. Ready, J. Eck, J. Hinkle, & F. Gajewski (Eds.), Does crime just move around the corner? A study of displacement and diffusion in Jersey city, NJ (pp. 178-218). Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
  16. Burgess, E. (1928). The growth of the city. In R. Park, E. Burgess, & R. McKenzie (Eds.), The city (pp. 89-99). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  17. Clarke, R., & Mayhew, P. (1988). The British gas suicide story and its criminological implications. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice (Vol. 10, pp. 79-116). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  18. Clarke, R., & Weisburd, D. (1994). Diffusion of crime control benefits: Observations on the reverse of displacement. In R. Clarke (Ed.), Crime prevention studies (Vol. 3, pp. 165-183).
  19. Cohen, L., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44, 588-605.
  20. Cordner, G. (1986). Fear of crime and the police: An evaluation of a fear-reduction strategy. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 14(3), 223-233.
  21. Cornish, D., & Clarke, R. (1986). The reasoning criminal: Rational choice perspectives on offending. New York, NY: Springer.
  22. Cornish, D., & Clarke, R. (1987). Understanding crime displacement: An application of rational choice theory. Criminology, 25(4), 933-947.
  23. Durlauf, S., & Nagin, D. (2011). Imprisonment and crime: Can both be reduced? Criminology and Public Policy, 10(1), 13-54.
  24. Eck, J. (2002). Preventing crime at places. In L. Sherman, D. Farrington, B. Welsh, & D. Mackenzie (Eds.), Evidence-based crime prevention (pp. 241-294). New York, NY: Routledge.
  25. Eck, J, & Weisburd, D. (Eds.). (1995). Crime and place. Crime prevention studies (4).
  26. Esbensen, F. (1987). Foot patrols: Of what value? American Journal of Police, 6(1), 45-65.
  27. Esbensen, F., & Taylor, T. (1984). Foot patrol and crime rates. Southern Journal of Criminal Justice, 8, 184-194.
  28. Guerette, R., & Bowers, K. (2009). Assessing the extent of crime displacement and diffusion of benefits: A review of situational crime prevention evaluations. Criminology, 47(4), 1331-1368.
  29. Guerette, R., Steinus, V., & McGloin, J. (2005). Understanding offending specialization and versatility: A re-application of the rational choice perspective. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(1), 77-87.
  30. Hessling, R. (1994). Displacement: A review of the empirical literature. In R. Clarke (Ed.), Crime prevention studies (Vol. 3, pp. 197-230).
  31. Jang, H., Lee, C., and Hoover, L. (in press). Dallas disruption unit: Efficacy of hot spot deployment. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management.
  32. Johnson, S., & Bowers, K. (2004). The burglary as clue to the future. European Journal of Criminology, 44(1), 237-255.
  33. Johnson, E., & Payne, J. (1986). The decision to commit a crime: An information-processing analysis. In D. Cornish & R. Clarke (Eds.), The reasoning criminal: Rational choice perspectives on offending (pp. 170-185). New York, NY: Springer.
  34. Kennedy, L., Caplan, J., & Piza, E. (2011). Risk clusters, hotspots, and spatial intelligence. Risk terrain modeling as an algorithm for police resource allocation strategies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 27(3), 339-362.
  35. Koper, C. (1995). Just enough police presence. Reducing crime and disorderly behavior by optimizing patrol time in crime hot spots. Justice Quarterly, 12(4), 649-672.
  36. Lawton, B., Taylor, R., & Luongo, A. (2005). Police officers on drug corners in Philadelphia, drug crime, and violent crime: Intended, diffusion, and displacement effects. Justice Quarterly, 22(4), 427-451.
  37. Mazerolle, L., Hurley, D., & Chamlin, M. (2002). Social behavior in public space: An analysis of behavioral adaptations to CCTV. Security Journal, 15(3), 59-75.
  38. Park, R. (1936). Human ecology. American Journal of Sociology, 42, 158.
  39. Ratcliffe, J. (2006). A temporal constraint theory to explain opportunity-based spatial offending patterns. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 43(3), 261-291.
  40. Ratcliffe, J., & Rengert, G. (2008). Near repeat patterns in Philadelphia shootings. Security Journal, 21(1-2), 58-76.
  41. Ratcliffe, J., Taniguchi, T., Groff, E., & Wood, J. (2011). The Philadelphia foot patrol experiment: A randomized controlled trial of police patrol effectiveness in violent crime hotspots. Criminology, 49(3), 795-831.
  42. US Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Center for Problem-Oriented Policing.
  43. Shaw, C., & Mckay, H. (1942). Juvenile delinquency in urban areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  44. Sherman, L. (1990). Police crackdowns: Initial and residual deterrence. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice. A review of research (Vol. 12, pp. 1-48). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  45. Sherman, L., & Eck, J. (2002). Policing for crime prevention. In L. Sherman, D. Farrington, B. Welsh, & D. Mackenzie (Eds.), Evidence-based crime prevention (pp. 295-329). New York, NY: Routledge.
  46. Sherman, L., Gartin, P., & Buerger, M. (1989). Hot spots of predatory crime: Routine activities and the criminology of place. Criminology, 27(1), 27-55.
  47. Sherman, L., & Weisburd, D. (1995). General deterrent effects of police patrol in crime hot spots: A randomized controlled trial. Justice Quarterly, 12(4), 625-648.
  48. Skogan, W, & Frydl, K. (2004). Fairness and effectiveness in policing: The evidence. In Committee to review research on police policy and practices. Committee on law and justice, division of behavioral and social sciences and education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
  49. Taylor, B., Koper, C., & Woods, D. (2011). A randomized controlled trial of different policing strategies at hot spots of violent crime. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(2), 149- 181.
  50. Trojanowicz, R. (1984). Foot patrol: Some problem areas. Police Chief, 51(6), 47-49.
  51. Tuttle, B. (2009). How Newark became Newark. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
  52. Weisburd, D., Bushway, S., Lum, C., & Yang, S. (2004). Trajectories of crime at places: A longitudinal study of street segments in the city of Seattle. Criminology, 42(2), 283-321.
  53. Weisburd, D., & Eck, J. (2004). What can police do to reduce crime, disorder, and fear? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 42-65.
  54. Weisburd, D., & Green, L. (1995). Policing drug hot spots: The Jersey city drug market analysis experiment. Justice Quarterly, 12(4), 711-736.
  55. Weisburd, D., Lum, C., & Petrosino, A. (2001). Does research design affect study out-comes in criminal justice? The Annals of the American Academy of Social and Political Sciences, 573(1), 50-70.
  56. Weisburd, W., Morris, N., & Groff, E. (2009). Hot spots of juvenile crime: A longitudinal study of arrest incidents at street segments in Seattle. Washington Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 25(4), 443-467.
  57. Weisburd, D., Morris, N., & Ready, J. (2008). Risk-focused policing at places: An experimental evaluation. Justice Quarterly, 25(1), 163-200.
  58. Weisburd, D., Wyckoff, L., Ready, J., Eck, J., Hinkle, J., & Gajewski, F. (2006). Does crime just move around the corner? A controlled study of spatial displacement and diffusion of crime control benefits. Criminology, 44(3), 549-592.
  59. Wells, W., Wu, L., & Ye, X. (2011). Patterns of near-repeat gun assaults in Houston. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. Advance online publication. DOI: 10.1177/0022427810397946. · DOI
  60. Welsh, B., & Farrington, D. (2009). Making public places safer. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  61. Welsh, B., Peel, M., Farrington, D., Elffers, H., & Braga, A. (2011). Research design influence on study outcomes in crime and justice: A partial replication with public area surveillance. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(2), 183-198.
  62. Wilson, O. (1963). Police Administration. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  63. Wright, R., & Decker, S. (1997). Armed robbers in action. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Piza, E., & O'Hara, B. A.
Affiliations
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
Corresponding author
Piza, Eric
ORCID
Piza, Eric
Venue
Justice Quarterly
Publisher
PubPub
Published
2014-03-01
Volume
31
Issue
4
Pages
693-718
ISSN
0741-8825 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.21428/cb6ab371.1d2aeed0
OpenAlex
W2059460909
Cited by
68
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
FWCI
6.90
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Justice Quarterly (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Keywords
foot patrol, violent crime prevention, displacement effects, robbery, street violence, murder, shooting, aggravated assault, Newark, New Jersey

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review