An annotation scheme for complex disfluencies
Abstract
In this paper, we present an annotation scheme for disfluencies. Unlike previous schemes, this scheme allows complex disfluencies with multiple backtracking points to be annotated, which are common in stuttered speech. The scheme specifies each disfluency in terms of word-level annotations, thus making the scheme useful for building sophisticated language models of disfluencies. As determining the annotation codes is quite difficult, we have developed a pen and paper procedure in which the annotator lines up the words into rows and columns, from which it is straight-forward for the annotator to determine the annotation tags. Index Terms:: disfluencies, stuttered speech, annotation scheme 1.
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In the context of stuttering, intentional repetition is known as backtracking, a technique to pause and repeat a sound, word, or syllable to avoid an experienced block or disfluency.
“In the context of stuttering, the former is known as backtracking [40], a technique to pause and repeat a sound, word, or syllable to avoid an experienced block or disfluency.”
From Disability-First AI Dataset Annotation: Co-designing Stuttered Speech Annotation Guidelines with People Who Stutter (2026) · cites this paper as [40]
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Tang, X., Li, J., & Wu, S. (2026) · Proceedings of the 2026 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790405 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In the context of stuttering, the former is known as back-tracking [40], a technique to pause and repeat a sound, word, or syllable to avoid an experienced block or disfluency.”
- Authors
- Heeman, P. A., McMillin, A., & Yaruss, J. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- ORCID
- Yaruss, J. Scott
- Venue
- Interspeech 2006
- Publisher
- ISCA
- Published
- 2006-09-17
- Pages
- paper 1859-Tue2WeO.4-0
- ISSN
- 2308-457X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W172061260
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2018: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 0.72
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Interspeech (USB) (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Speech Recognition and Synthesis
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Stuttering Research and Treatment
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Linguistic Studies and Language Acquisition
- Keywords
- annotation scheme, stuttered speech, stuttering, word-level annotation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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