The DOI matches its Crossref record; 28 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 26 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Rethinking the Cultural Icon: Its Use and Function in Popular Culture
Open accessAbstract
Background The role of cultural icons in twenty-first century North American popular culture has been under-theorized in communication scholarship. This is a significant gap in knowledge, given the importance of the icon as a public text through which collective cultural values are symbolized.Analysis Using the novel approach of the scoping review, this article illuminates the current landscape of iconic studies by identifying wide-ranging examples of the cultural icon from academic scholarship, recognizing organizational categories, and synthesizing existing definitions to highlight the limits of current conceptualizations.Conclusions and Implications Informed by the collected data, this article suggests a redefinition of the cultural icon that considers its current novel role in revealing tensions between different articulations of collective cultural values.
Overview
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TL;DR
This article uses a scoping review to map academic literature on the cultural icon and synthesize existing definitions, arguing that the concept is under-theorized in communication scholarship. It proposes a redefinition of the cultural icon that emphasizes symbolic form, circulation networks, public context, and response to crisis.
Key findings
- The scoping review identified 508 items and marked 255 abstracts for inclusion; publication dates ranged from 1970 to 2016, with no more than 11 manuscripts per year before 2002 and up to 19 per year between 2003 and 2016, peaking between 2006 and 2011. Publication types were 187 journal articles, 51 books/book chapters, 13 dissertations/theses, and 4 conference papers.
- Of the 255 included manuscripts, only 31 (12%) offered definitions of the term, and only 23 (9%) offered original definitions. The term “cultural” was used in 193 manuscripts (76%), “popular” in 53 (21%), and both in 9 (4%).
- Icons were coded into three broad categories: person (182 of 255, 71%), thing (62, 24%), and place (11, 4%). Ranked sub-types were: 1) individual people, 2) groups of people/human figures, 3) objects, 4) concepts, 5) animals, 6) geographical places, 7) organizations, and 8) conceptual places.
- The proposed definition is: “A cultural icon is a symbol (in the form of person, place or thing) associated with the ‘public good,’ represented in various forms (mental image, 2D, and 3D text), circulating through a variety of networks (social, material, digital) in popular culture, in response to broader modes and contexts of crisis.”
Methods
- The study is a scoping review following Arksey and O’Malley’s five stages: identifying the research topic, locating literature, selecting relevant studies, extracting and charting qualitative data, and condensing/summarizing the data.
- Searches covered Communication & Mass Media Complete, JSTOR, Academic Search Complete, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, plus hand searches of the *Journal of Visual Culture*, *Journal of Popular Culture*, and relevant books.
- Inclusion required that “cultural icon” or “popular icon” be used to describe and/or analyze a primary or secondary example; examples were coded as person, place, or thing, and definitions were recorded where available and coded for form, function, and location.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: a single reviewer screened the abstracts, and the quality of the studies identified was not assessed.
- Evident from the text: the scoping review is not designed to assess literature quality, and only 31 of 255 included manuscripts offered definitions, with only 23 original definitions, limiting the synthesis of existing conceptualizations.
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Claims the paper makes
62 Own interpretation · 17 Own result · 12 Sources not found · 5 Not checked yet · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 1 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One of the key patterns evident in the collection of this data was observable from the first stages of the research process: that the icons under study belong to the three broad categories of 'person' (specific and non-specific human and animal figures), 'place' (specific and non-specific places and spaces), and 'thing' (specific and non-specific objects and ideas).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In terms of 'form,' the cultural icon was most commonly described as an image, symbol, or object”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The popular motivational slogan 'Keep Calm and Carry On' has become the subject of countless cultural texts, from globally available commercial products to internet memes (Hatherley, 2016; Mastony, 2009; Slack 2012; Thorpe, 2016).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hatherley, 2016
- Not matchedcites Mastony, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Slack 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, these explanations do not directly address an interesting implicit dichotomy in the 'person' category: that 'iconic people' can be readily sorted into 'historical' and 'fictional' subgroups.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the data collected in this study suggests, the similarities between icons in terms of their classifications and categorizations far surpasses differences in their treatment as subjects under study.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
15 more claims
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 38
- Probably not a substantial claim. 72
Citations
Cites
Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework
Arksey, H., & O'Malley, L. (2005) · International Journal of Social Research Methodology · doi:10.1080/1364557032000119616 · Cited by 36,742
What Do Pictures Want?: The Lives and Loves of Images
Mitchell, W. J. T. (2005) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226245904.001.0001 · Cited by 1,508
How brands become icons: the principles of cultural branding
(2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-5359 · Cited by 1,297
No caption needed: iconic photographs, public culture, and liberal democracy
(2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-4527 · Cited by 794
Photojournalism and Foreign Policy: Icons of Outrage in International Crises
Perlmutter, D. D. (1998) · Cited by 200
Alexander, J. C., Bartmański, D., & Giesen, B. (2012) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137012869 · Cited by 165
The Essential Peirce, Volume 1: Selected Philosophical Writings' (1867–1893)
(1992) · Indiana University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctvpwhg1z · Cited by 138
Popular culture : an introductory text
Nachbar, J. G., & Lausé, K. (1992) · Bowling Green State University Popular Press eBooks · Cited by 128
THE DNA MYSTIQUE: THE GENE AS A CULTURAL ICON
Nelkin, D., & Lindee, M. S. (1995) · Cited by 123
The Last Dinosaur Book: The Life and Times of a Cultural Icon
Mitchell, W. J. T. (1998) · Cited by 120
Research works printed but not linked: 14
- Bishop, William. (2014).The New York Yankees as an American cultural icon, 1940-1970[Doctoral dissertation]. URL: https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/14516 [May 6, 2017]
- Geist, Christopher D. & Nachbar, Jack (Eds.). (1983).The popular culture reader(3rd edition). Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.
- Kemp, Martin. (2012).Christ to coke: How image becomes icon. Oxford, UK & New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Lang, Bernhard. (2009).Joseph in Egypt: A cultural icon from Grotius to Goethe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Lewis, Bex [Rebecca M.]. (Forthcoming).Keep calm and carry on: The truth behind the poster. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
- Lewis, Rebecca M. (2004).The planning, design and reception of British home front propaganda posters of the Second World War[PhD thesis]. Winchester, UK: University of Winchester. URL: http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.431214 [May 6, 2017].
- Mays, Nicholas, Roberts, Emilie, & Popay, Jennie. (2001). Synthesizing research evidence. In N. Fulop, P. Allen, A. Clarke, & N. Black (Eds.),Studying the organization and delivery of health services: Research methods(pp. 188–220). London, UK: Routledge.
- O’Ryan, Mariana Casale. (2014).The making of Jorge Luis Borges as an Argentine cultural icon[MHRA Texts & Dissertations Vol. 99]. Cambridge, UK: Modern Humanities Research Association.
- OED Online. (2016, June). Oxford University Press URL: http://www.oed.com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/view/Entry/162997?rskey=SVzuYD&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid [May 6, 2017].
- Packer, Jeremy (Ed.). (2009).Secret agents: Popular icons beyond James Bond. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
- Parker, Mike. (2012).Cultural icons: A case study analysis of their formation and reception[doctoral dissertation]. URL: http://clok.uclan.ac.uk/5312/2/Parker%20Michael%20Final%20e-Thesis%20%28Master%20Copy%29.pdf [May 6, 2017].
- Rodgers, Mary. (2009).Barbie culture. London, UK: Sage Publications.
- Sturken, Marita, & Cartwright, Lisa. (2009).Practices of looking: An introduction to visual culture(2nd edition). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Truman, Emily J. (2014).Back to the political future: Coping with crisis through radical nostalgia for revolutionary icons[doctoral dissertation]. URL: https://curve.carleton.ca/c50d2586-0c62-4f04-93a3-b5fe2b0168d6 [May 6, 2017].
Cited by
Wang, D., Martin, B. A. S., & Yao, J. (2020) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287520918008 · Cited by 26
Dosso, C., & Chevalier, A. (2021) · Educational Gerontology · doi:10.1080/03601277.2021.1886634 · Cited by 24
Miguel-Revilla, D., Torres, E. L., Molina, J. O., & Puché, S. M. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-04123-w · Cited by 10
Iconos españoles en la cultura histórica de docentes en formación
Molina, J. O., Puché, S. M., & Sánchez, J. J. M. (2024) · Revista Electrónica Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado · doi:10.6018/reifop.602091 · Cited by 9
The Pope’s New Clothes: The Brand Politics of the Papal Uniform in Popular Culture
Moir, A. (2023) · M/C Journal · doi:10.5204/mcj.2966 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Truman, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Truman, Emily
- ORCID
- Truman, Emily
- Venue
- Canadian Journal of Communication
- Published
- 2017-12-16
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 829-849
- ISSN
- 0705-3657 (ISSN-L)
- 1499-6642
- OpenAlex
- W2776004836
- Semantic Scholar
- 9f6bc0d9a7ff7cf6c3b9d40a5a77229f62397a60
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 4.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Canadian Journal of Communication (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Semiotics and Representation Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Cultural, Social, and Media Studies
- Social Sciences › Communication › Rhetoric and Communication Studies
- Keywords
- cultural icons, popular culture, public texts
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