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Cited by 3Comparative and World LiteratureLibraries, Manuscripts, and BooksIslamic Studies and History

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Longing for Salmá and Hind : (Re)producing Arabic Literature in 18th and 19th-Century North India

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Leese, Simon·2022·School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
DOI 10.25501/soas.00032233
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Abstract

Arabic writing is an important but neglected aspect of Indian cultural history. Likewise, being on the Arabic “periphery”, India is almost always overlooked in histories of Arabic literature. As a two-pronged intervention to these fields, this thesis studies Arabic poetry and anthologies produced in North India in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the different ways in which these cultural productions responded to and reconstituted the Arabic canon as seen from the region. My research relies on a large archive of hitherto un-researched printed books and manuscripts in Indian and UK libraries, and incorporates figures such as Shāh Walī Allāh, Ghulām ʿAlī “Āzād” al-Bilgrāmī, and Nawāb Ṣiddīq Ḥasan Khān alongside lesser known poets, scholars, printers, and book sellers who participated in the vibrant field of Arabic textual production As well as drawing on this rich archive to reconstruct neglected aspects of Indian and Arabic cultural history and to excavate south-south connections, the thesis investigates the meanings Arabic poetry takes on in a multilingual literary culture. I ask how the poetics of nostalgia, love, and devotion are read multilingually, sometimes through overt translation into Persian and Urdu. The thesis also explores how poetic meaning is inflected by imaginations of space. Arabic scholars in India had a rich historical and geographical awareness, deploying Arabic poetics in a variety of textual and material forms to articulate their relationship both to their own geographies, to canonical Arabic writers of the past, and to contemporaries within transregional networks that linked India with Yemen, the Hejaz, Egypt, and Iraq. I argue that multilingual poetic meaning and articulations of selfhood were structured by the maintenance of multiple gazes to time-spaces of the past and present. In doing so, I suggest possible avenues for reading Arabic’s other multilingual pasts and multilingual poetics more generally.

Overview

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TL;DR

This thesis reconstructs Arabic literary production in 18th- and 19th-century North India, arguing that Arabophone scholars there understood Arabic through a multilingual, geographically layered imagination rather than as a language belonging only to "Arabic-speaking lands." It proposes "poetic terrains" (ʿArab, ʿAjam, Hind) and "spatio-temporal gaze" as tools for reading how poets, anthologists, translators, and printers positioned themselves between local North Indian localities and distant Arabic geographies.

Key findings

  • Arabic writing in India is doubly neglected — overlooked in Arabic literary historiography and in Indian literary history — and the thesis intervenes in both, drawing on "a large archive of hitherto un-researched printed books and manuscripts in Indian and UK libraries."
  • Poets such as ʿArshī and Āzād al-Bilgrāmī articulated multilingual belonging through geography: ʿArshī's verse pairs "the two tongues" (Arabic and Persian) with the Hejaz and Isfahan, while Āzād's bird metaphor (doves of the Arabs, nightingales of the Persians, parakeets of India) claims that "anybody who is well versed in the three tongues arrives at the essence of poetry."
  • Shaykh Aḥmad al-Shirwānī's Calcutta anthology *Ḥadīqat al-afrāḥ* (1813) maps the Arabic world into six geographical sections — Yemen (39 biographies), al-Ḥaramayn (17), Egypt (12)/al-Shām (17)/Iraq (14), al-Rūm (3)/al-Maghrib (4), Bahrain (5)/Oman (5), and al-Hind (20)/al-ʿAjam (4) — making al-Hind a separate terrain of Arabic connoisseurship, an innovation relative to earlier anthologies such as Ibn Maʿṣūm's *Sulāfat al-ʿaṣr*.
  • Shāh Walī Allāh's *hamzīyah* (45 verses in six parts in the commentary version) imitates Ḥassān b. Thābit's poem while reworking the convention of the amatory opening, declaring the old ways of poetry "abrogated by the Seal of the Prophets"; his poetry is read alongside his statements that Indian Muslims are "a dislocated people" (*mardum-i gharīb*) with Arab genealogy and language as sources of pride, even as he called Delhi his *vaṭan*.
  • The motif of the beloved Salmá, and the pun between Hind the beloved and al-Hind the land, let poets articulate distance, nostalgia, and belonging; Amīn Allāh's verse asks whether an address to Salmá "came to us in the Arabic tongue, / Though to it we do not belong," suggesting the untranslatability of Arabic's idioms of longing.

Methods

  • A two-pronged literary-historical study of Arabic poetry and anthologies produced in North India in the 18th and 19th centuries, treating the two centuries together to chart continuities across manuscript and print.
  • Archival research on manuscripts and printed books in Indian and UK libraries (e.g. Rampur, Nadwatul Ulama, British Library, Khuda Bakhsh, Aligarh), including paratexts, marginalia, and print editions.
  • Close reading of Arabic, Persian, and Urdu texts — qaṣīdahs, *badīʿīyah*, *takhmīs*, commentaries, and versified translations (notably of Kaʿb b. Zuhayr's *Bānat Suʿād*) — analysed through the frameworks of multilingualism (after Orsini) and spatiality/"significant geographies," with Bourdieu's habitus/field and the concept of spatio-temporal gaze.

Limitations

  • The paper does not state limitations in the text provided.
  • Evident from the text: the argument is built on a small set of elite male ʿulamāʾ and poets, and the thesis itself notes that its sources (e.g. *Ḥadīqat al-afrāḥ*) systematically obscure multilingualism and non-elite voices — "all the fruit-bearing trees are men belonging to the educated class of the ʿulamāʾ."
  • Evident from the text provided: the full text is truncated, so chapters 3 and 4 and parts of chapter 2 are only partially represented here.

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  2. Muṣaddiq al-faḍl is a relatively straightforward Arabic commentary concerned with linguistic analysis on the level of lexicography, morphology, grammar, rhetoric, and prosody. 534 A later, 19th-century Arabic commentary that also limited itself to a linguistic analysis was one by Shaykh Aḥmad al-Yamanī al-Shirwānī printed in 1818, one of several works he composed and edited during his employment at Fort William College, Calcutta (see Chapter 1). 535 Correspondence related to the printing of the work illustrates Bānat Suʿād's perceived cultural importance at the time. Through the Fort William College Council, Shaykh Aḥmad petitioned the Company for a subscription of 500 rupees to print 100 copies of "the Arabic poem of Kaabin Zohyr a celebrated poet contemporary with Moohumeed." According to Shaykh Ahmad, "this poem is held in high estimation by the Arabs, but is very difficult and scarcely to be read without commentary." In support of Shaykh Aḥmad's application, William Lumsden, the Professor of Arabic at Fort William, added that the poem "is one of the most celebrated in the Arabic language and indispensably required to be accompanied by a commentary, without which it cannot be read by foreigners and scarcely perhaps by very many of the Arabs." 536
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Metadata

Authors
Leese, S.
Corresponding author
Leese, Simon
ORCID
Leese, Simon
Venue
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
Publisher
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
Published
2022
DOI
10.25501/soas.00032233
OpenAlex
W3015050684
Cited by
3
References
0
Citations by year
2022: 1
Type
dissertation
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc-nd
Locations
  • SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) (acceptedVersion)
  • SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • SOAS Research Online (SOAS University of London)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Comparative and World Literature
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Libraries, Manuscripts, and Books
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Islamic Studies and History
Keywords
Arabic poetry, North India, multilingualism, Persian translation, Urdu translation, nostalgia, love poetry, devotional poetry, Arabic poetics, Arabic manuscripts, Arabic printing, selfhood, time and space in poetry

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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This page
CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Longing for Salmá and Hind : (Re)producing Arabic Literature in 18th and 19th-Century North India. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.25501/soas.00032233
The paper
Leese, S. (2022). Longing for Salmá and Hind : (Re)producing Arabic Literature in 18th and 19th-Century North India. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. https://doi.org/10.25501/soas.00032233

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Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.