Ten Essays on Education Governance and Datafication written by ChatGPT 5- mini
Open accessAbstract
This document is derived from a project to assess nature of the references that ChatGPT 5 -mini could offer. To generate the required citation, the at the time of writing current version of ChatGPT (5-mini) was tasked with writing a referenced essay. The following prompt was used: “Write a 1000 word essay on the topic of the role of datafication in education in relation to the governance of schools. Cite appropriate references. Use APA6 format.” In total ten replicates were generated.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The full text of the ten essays has been documented in a document archived at the author's institution.
“the full text of the essays has been documented in a document archived at the author's institution. [11]”
From How unique are hallucinated citations offered by generative Artificial Intelligence models? (2026) · cites this paper as [11]
Fully hallucinated were 3.5% of the citations, while the remaining 12.3% had sufficient numbers of serious errors that they cannot be the result of genuine web searches.
“Fully hallucinated were 3.5% of the citations, while the remaining 12.3% had sufficient numbers of serious errors that they cannot be the result of genuine web searches. [11]”
From How unique are hallucinated citations offered by generative Artificial Intelligence models? (2026) · cites this paper as [11]
Among the two hallucinated references was one (no 56) with the exact same characteristics as the hallucinated reference under discussion earlier in this paper: Williamson, B., & Piattoeva, N. (2022). Education governance and datafication. Education and Information Technologies, 27, 3515-3531.
“Among the two hallucinated references was one (nº 56) [11] with the exact same characteristics as the hallucinated reference under discussion earlier in this paper:”
From How unique are hallucinated citations offered by generative Artificial Intelligence models? (2026) · cites this paper as [11]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
How Unique Are Hallucinated Citations Offered by Generative Artificial Intelligence Models?
Spennemann, D. H. R. (2026) · Publications · doi:10.3390/publications14030038 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationHow unique are hallucinated citations offered by generative Artificial Intelligence models?
Spennemann, D. H. (2026) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2604.16407
Self-citation
- Authors
- Spennemann, D.
- Affiliations
- Charles Sturt University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Spennemann, Dirk
- ORCID
- Spennemann, Dirk
- Venue
- Charles Sturt University
- Publisher
- Charles Sturt University
- Published
- 2026
- OpenAlex
- W7147313262
- Cited by
- 0
- References
- 0
- Type
- dataset
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Charles Sturt University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Global Educational Policies and Reforms
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Digital Education and Society
- Keywords
- large language models, datafication, education governance, school governance, citation quality, APA 7th edition
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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