The DOI matches its Crossref record; 46 of the 46 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 50 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning
Open accessAbstract
Many teaching practices implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge can be abstracted from the situations in which it is learned and used. This article argues that this assumption inevitably limits the effectiveness of such practices. Drawing on recent research into cognition as it is manifest in everyday activity, the authors argue that knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. They discuss how this view of knowledge affects our understanding of learning, and they note that conventional schooling too often ignores the influence of school culture on what is learned in school. As an alternative to conventional practices, they propose cognitive apprenticeship (Collins, Brown, & Newman, in press), which honors the situated nature of knowledge. They examine two examples of mathematics instruction that exhibit certain key features of this approach to teaching.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that knowledge is fundamentally situated—partly a product of activity, context, and culture—so teaching methods that treat concepts as abstract, self-contained, and transferable are often misleading and ineffective. As an alternative, it proposes “cognitive apprenticeship,” illustrated through two mathematics teaching examples.
Key findings
- Knowledge is not independent of situations; it is a co-production of mind and world, and abstraction/explication provides an “inherently impoverished and often misleading” view of knowledge.
- Vocabulary taught from dictionary definitions is slow and unsuccessful: the average 17-year-old learns vocabulary at 5,000 words per year (13 per day) over 16 years through listening, talking, and reading, whereas classroom definition-based teaching can cover only 100 to 200 words per year and produces errors such as “I was meticulous about falling off the cliff.”
- Learning is a process of enculturation into authentic activity and culture; school activity is often “ersatz” and self-confirming, so success in school may have little bearing on performance elsewhere.
- Cognitive apprenticeship—using modeling, coaching, fading, social interaction, and collaboration—can enculturate students into authentic practices; the paper examines Schoenfeld’s magic-square problem-solving class and Lampert’s fourth-grade multiplication teaching through coin problems and student-generated stories.
Methods
- Conceptual and theoretical paper, not an empirical study; it synthesizes research on everyday cognition, apprenticeship, situated learning, indexicality, and enculturation.
- Uses illustrative cases and examples, including Miller and Gildea’s vocabulary teaching, Lave’s Weight Watchers cottage-cheese problem, Schoenfeld’s mathematics teaching, and Lampert’s multiplication teaching.
- Main analysis is argumentative: it contrasts JPF, student, and practitioner activity (Table 1) and proposes cognitive apprenticeship as an alternative to conventional didactic schooling.
Limitations
- Stated: the authors describe the exploration as “consciously speculative” and “admittedly tentative”; they say the paper does not attempt a historical survey or critical analysis, and that “major theoretical work” on situated cognition remains to be done.
- Stated: future work must frame the relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit understanding.
- Evident: the paper presents no controlled outcome data or systematic evaluation; its claims about transfer, school culture, and cognitive apprenticeship rest on conceptual argument and illustrative examples.
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Claims the paper makes
118 Own interpretation · 41 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 2 No basis given · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“We know from an extensive literature on the subject (diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986; McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980; White, 1983) that students have many misconceptions about qualitative phenomena in physics.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites diSessa, 1982, 1983, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites McCloskey, Caramazza, & Green, 1980 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
McCloskey, Caramazza, and Green (1980) is cited as one work in a broader literature supporting the sentence, not as evidence for every misconception in physics. A Semantic Scholar snippet from “Overcoming University Students’ Alternative Conceptions in Newtonian Mechanics” (score 0.493) explicitly attributes undergraduate students’ mistaken predictions about curvilinear motion to McCloskey et al. (1980). The cited paper therefore supports the claim through a concrete example, although paper-scoped searches returned no full-text snippets. (LLM, conf=0.79)
- Could not verifycites White, 1983 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The supplied source, D. W. R. White’s 1983 paper “Plant Regeneration from Mesophyll Protoplasts of White Clover,” concerns plant regeneration, not physics education. Two searches within that paper returned no snippets, but the absence of accessible text prevents a definitive finding about its contents. An unscoped search found only lower-scoring discussions of physics misconceptions in other papers, not a sufficiently strong match to identify the intended White (1983) source. The citation appears mismatched, but the evidence does not meet the threshold for a misattribution verdict. (LLM, conf=0.75)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The occasions and conditions for use arise directly out of the context of activities of each community or culture that uses the tool, framed by the way members of that culture see the world.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea's (1987) work on vocabulary teaching shows how the assumption that knowing and doing can be separated leads to a teaching method that ignores the way situations structure cognition.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Miller and Gildea (1987) source
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In the paper
“Miller and Gildea note that by listening, talking, and reading the average 17-year-old has learned vocabulary at a rate of 5,000 words per year (13 per day) for over 16 years.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Language use would involve an unremitting confrontation with ambiguity, polysemy, nuance, metaphor, etc., were it not for the extralinguistic help that the context of an utterance provides (Nunberg, 1978).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Nunberg, 1978
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, it is common for students to acquire algorithms, routines, and decontextualized definitions that they cannot use and that therefore lie inert.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To develop this comparison between tools and knowledge, between manual tools and conceptual tools, a little further, it can be noted that learning how to use a tool involves far more than can be accounted for in any set of explicit rules.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They are bound by intricate, socially constructed webs of belief, which make it possible to see them as cultures (Geertz, 1983), and which are essential to interpreting what they do.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Geertz, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because new situations, negotiations, and activities inevitably recast them in a new, more densely textured form, concepts continually evolve with each new occasion of use.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The authors examine one such method and argue that its lack of success is a direct result of this assumption.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 54
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In the paper
“There is barely enough classroom time, Miller and Gildea suggest, to teach more than 100 to 200 words per year.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many teaching methods implicitly assume that conceptual knowledge is independent of the situations in which it is learned and used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“By contrast, learning words from definitions and sentences abstracted from the context of normal communication, the way vocabulary has often been taught, is slow and unsuccessful.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Miller and Gildea
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge, we claim, is partially embedded in the social and physical world.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is impossible to capture the densely interwoven nature of conceptual knowledge completely in explicit, abstract accounts.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Learning is the process of constructing robust understanding out of this sort of embedded activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Teaching methods, however, often try to impart abstracted conceptual tools as fixed, well-defined, independent entities that can be explored in prototypical examples and textbook exercises.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And these embedding circumstances allow people to share the burden of solving problems efficiently.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Knowledge is fundamentally a co-production of the mind and the world, which like woof and warp need each other to produce texture and to complete an otherwise incoherent pattern.”
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In the paper
“Teaching, however, often overlooks the central, but restrictive, contribution made by the activities, context, and culture of schools to what is learned there.”
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In the paper
“And the general strategies for intuitive reasoning, resolving issues, and negotiating meaning that people develop through everyday activity are superseded by the precise, well-defined problems, formal definitions, and symbol manipulation that characterize much school activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such ploys indicate how thoroughly learners really are situated, and how they always lean on the embedding context for help.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“So even though students are expected to behave differently, they inevitably do behave like the JPFs they are and solve most of their problems in their own situated way.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To learn to use tools as practitioners use them, students, like apprentices, must be enabled to enter that community and its culture.”
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, students are too often presented with only a part of this complex.”
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In the paper
“The issues and problems that they face arise out of, are defined by, and are resolved within the constraints of their belief system and the activity they are pursuing.”
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In the paper
“Though these are often anathema to traditional schooling, they are an essential component of social interaction and thus of learning.”
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In the paper
“Within a culture, ideas are exchanged and modified and belief systems developed and appropriated in part through conversation and narratives”
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In the paper
“Learning is instead a continual process needing above all authentic activity to support its development.”
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In the paper
“From here, students can, as we have suggested, use their fledgling conceptual knowledge to see their activity in a new light, which in turn leads to the further development of the conceptual knowledge, and so on.”
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In the paper
“When descriptions replace indexical terms (which is analogous, we hold, to classroom descriptions of activity replacing activity), the nature of discourse changes and understanding becomes much more problematic.”
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In the paper
“The social network within the culture helps them develop its language and the belief systems and promotes the process of enculturation.”
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In the paper
“They need to observe how qualified practitioners behave and talk to get a sense of how expertise is manifest in conversation and other activities.”
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In the paper
“Collaboration also leads to the articulation or manifestation of strategies, which can then be discussed and reflected on.”
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In the paper
“If, as we propose, learning is a process of enculturating that is supported in part through social interaction and the circulation of narrative”
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In the paper
“As the students gain more self-confidence and control, they move into a more autonomous phase of collaborative learning, where they begin to participate consciously in the culture.”
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In the paper
“The group, however, permits different roles to be displayed and engenders reflective narratives and discussions about the aptness of those roles.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In this sequence, apprenticeship and coaching begin by providing modeling in situ and scaffolding for students to get started in an authentic activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The belief system is instilled in the only way it can be, through practice in which the students actively take part.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In language learning, for example, the original frail understanding of a word is developed and extended through subsequent use and social negotiation, though each use is no less situated.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Successful execution of most individual tasks requires students to understand the many different roles needed for carrying out that task.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This further suggests that a new epistemology might hold the key to a dramatic improvement in learning and completely new insights into education.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In educational terms alone, however, the unheralded importance of activity and enculturation to learning suggests that much common practice is the product of an inadequate epistemology.”
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In the paper
“All knowledge is, we believe, like language. Its constituent parts index the world and so are inextricably a product of the activity and situations in which they are produced and used.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus all concepts--even apparently well-defined, abstract technical concepts--are always under construction. They are never wholly definable, and they defy the sort of categorical descriptions that are conventionally used in teaching: part of their meaning is always inherited from the contexts in which they are used.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The adequacy of the solution they reach becomes apparent in relation to the role it must play in allowing activity to continue.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conceptual tools similarly reflect the cumulative wisdom of the culture in which they are used and the insights and experience of individuals. Their meaning is not invariant but a product of negotiation within a culture and of practice in authentic activity.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They are not merely context sensitive; they are completely context dependent. They can only be understood in relation to specific situations, from which indexicals are, for the purposes of interpretation, inseparable.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“But words and sentences are not islands, entire unto themselves. They rely on the context in which they are used--and not just the linguistic context--to be understood.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Nunberg, 1978
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“He filled a measuring cup two-thirds full of cottage cheese, dumped it out on the cutting board, patted it into a circle, marked a cross on it, scooped away one quadrant, and served the rest.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, it may be more useful to consider conceptual knowledge as in some ways similar to a set of tools.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Learning and acting are, as a result, interestingly indistinct, learning being a continuous, life-long process resulting from acting in situations.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tools share several significant features with knowledge; in particular, both can be fully understood in use, and both, if fully understood, change the way their users look at the world.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Activity, concept, and culture are interdependent. No one can be totally understood without the other two. Learning must therefore involve all three.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“His class' goal, by contrast, is to understand the mathematical nature of magic squares, and it is in part by doing this that the belief system is exemplified.”
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“So knowledge, which comes coded by and connected to the activity and environment in which it is developed, is spread across its component parts--some of which are in the mind and some in the world--as the final picture on a jigsaw is spread across its component pieces.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, though schooling seeks to encourage problem solving, it disregards most of the inventive heuristics that students bring to the classroom.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by pointing to different decompositions, it stresses that heuristics are not absolute, but assessed with respect to a particular task--and that even algorithms can be assessed in this way.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by allowing students to generate their own solution paths, it helps make them conscious, creative members of the culture of problem-solving mathematicians.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Lampert (1986) also involves her students in mathematical exploration, which she tries to make continuous with their everyday knowledge.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lampert (1986) source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And, in enculturating through this activity, they acquire some of the culture's tools--a shared vocabulary and the means to discuss, reflect upon, evaluate, and validate community procedures in a collaborative process.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The students start with an extended procedure that parallels the story problem above. Eventually they find ways to shorten the process, and they usually arrive at the standard algorithm, justifying their findings with the stories they had created earlier.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ensuing situations, the appropriateness of the word is tested and, as with all conceptual knowledge, each application has the potential to change an individual's understanding of both the word and the world --the two are interdependent.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“She tries to inculcate an inseparable understanding of all of these kinds of knowledge and the connections between them, and thus to bridge the huge gap that emerges from much conventional teaching between conceptual knowledge and problem-solving activity--between, as we characterized them at the beginning, knowing and doing.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Thus, Lampert presents the algorithm as one more useful strategy to help them resolve community problems.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lampert
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“by beginning with a task embedded in a familiar activity, it shows the students the legitimacy of their implicit knowledge and its availability as scaffolding in apparently unfamiliar tasks.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indexical terms are virtually transparent. They, like a signpost, draw little or no attention to themselves.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Eagleton (1983) describes reading as just such an enriching process, through which people continually change how they read and this, in turn, changes what they are reading.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagleton (1983)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“By deliberately engaging students in authentic mathematical practice, he reaches well beyond the inculcation of problem-solving skills. His method, much more importantly, provides students with the opportunity to enter the culture of mathematical practice, which enables them to use those skills as practitioners.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The class worked collectively through a number of strategies, in which, on reflection, they recognized more general and more powerful mathematical ideas.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“prevalent school practices still broadly assume that knowledge is individual and self-structured, that schools are neutral with respect to what is learned in them, that concepts are abstract and immutable and independent of the activity in which they are acquired and used, and that JPF behavior is something to be discouraged.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld is careful to emphasize that all these strategies are illustrated in action, developed by the class, not declared by the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Lave (1988c) describes how some students feel it necessary to disguise effective strategies so that teachers believe the problems have been solved in the school-approved way.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988c)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the terms of cognitive apprenticeship, we can represent the progress of the students from embedded activity to general principles of the culture as presented in Figure 3.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The class went on to explore other possible magic squares and thereby discovered general principles (e.g., an algebraic form for describing them).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schoenfeld
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As an indication that he is working in the culture of mathematics, not in the culture of schooling, he does not stop at what, in culture of school practice, marks the end: an answer.”
hedgedstates an associationSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's teaching of problem solving (1985, in press) attempts to show college students how to think mathematically about the world, how to see the world through mathematicians' eyes, and thus how to use the mathematician's tools.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schoenfeld (1985, in press) source
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Recurring features of the environment seem to afford recurrent sequences of actions.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This sort of dialectical process is common to all activity, and it similarly undermines any assumption that once conceptual knowledge has been described and applied in exercises, the task of teaching or learning has been finished.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schoenfeld's approach, on the other hand, points in particular to the way in which students can be exposed to the authentic ways of thinking of a culture and its conceptual viewpoint, as much as to its subject matter.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A proposition, as we pointed out above, can only be correctly interpreted in the context of the situation in which it is used.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“And apprenticeship also suggests the paradigm of situated modeling, coaching, and fading (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989), whereby teachers or coaches promote learning first by modeling their strategies for students in authentic activity. Then teachers and colleagues support a student's attempts at doing the task. And finally they empower the student to coatinue independent of the teacher.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An epistemology that begins with activity and perception, which are first and foremost embedded in the world, may simply bypass the classical problem of reference--of mediating conceptual representations.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is at this stage, in short, that students no longer behave as archetypal students but participate in the activity of practitioners and develop their conceptual understanding through social interaction and collaboration in the culture of the domain, not of the school.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Lave (1988a) and Lave and Wenger (in preparation) point out the importance for apprentices of learning their craft in the appropriate community of practice, towards the center of which they continuously progress through gradual enculturation.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lave (1988a)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Lave and Wenger (in preparation)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This in turn fosters generalizing, grounded in the students' situated understanding.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These then occupy a place in our ontology and become something more to learn about rather than simply something useful in learning.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“groups of practitioners are particularly important, for it is only within groups that social interaction and conversation can take place.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, indexical representations seem to gain their efficiency by leaving a great deal of the context underrepresented or implicit.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Most school activity exists in a culture of its own.
“The idea that most school activity exists in a culture of its own helps explain many of the difficulties of cultivating robust domain learning in school.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Schools demand a qualitative change in behavior.
“Schools do seem to demand a qualitative change in behavior, however.”
The paper relies on this without support.
What a student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.
“What the student is expected to do and what a JPF does are significantly different.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The school situation is extremely specialized.
“But the school situation is extremely specialized.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An unacknowledged dependency on school-based cues makes learning extremely fragile when viewed from outside school.
“Viewed from outside, where problems do not come in text books, an unacknowledged dependency on such school-based cues makes the learning extremely fragile.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content (e.g., law, medicine, architecture, business) have traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.
“Certainly many professions with generally acknowledged cognitive content--for example, law, medicine, architecture, business, etc.--have nonetheless traditionally been learned through apprenticeship.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students in humanities, social sciences, and physical sciences acquire extremely refined research skills through apprenticeship with senior researchers.
“Moreover, advanced graduate students in the humanities, the social sciences, and the physical sciences, acquire their extremely refined research skills through the apprenticeship they serve with senior researchers.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Advanced graduate students, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to well-defined exercises typically given in textbooks and exams throughout earlier schooling.
“Then they, like all apprentices, must recognize and resolve the ill-defined problems that issue out of authentic activity, in contrast to the welldefined exercises that are typically given to them in text books and on exams throughout their earlier schooling.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.
“Students who are taught individually rather than collaboratively can fail to develop skills needed for collaborative work.”
The paper relies on this without support.
For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.
“For centuries epistemologists have concentrated primarily on conceptual representation and its problematic relation to objects in the world, assuming that representation is cognitively prior to all else.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.
“Teachers rarely have the opportunity to hear enough of what students think to recognize when the information that is offered back by students is only a surface retelling for school purposes (the handing back of an uncomprehended tool, as we described it at the beginning) that may mask deep misconceptions about the physical world and problem-solving strategies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.
“A common strategy in trying to overcome difficult pedagogic problems is to make as much as possible explicit.”
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In the citing paper
“Constructivist, situated, and sociocultural perspectives define learning as active meaning-making, participation in communities of practice, and identity development [24,25,56].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [56]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These presentations led to discussions helping teachers create authentic contexts for learning STEM content and practices (Brown et al., 1989; Bruner, 1996; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
From Increasing high school teachers self-efficacy for integrated STEM instruction through a collaborative community of practice (2020) · cites this paper as Brown et al., 1989
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Busch, K. C. (2021) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2021.1960954 · Cited by 25
Koretsky, M., McColley, C. J., Gugel, J. L., & Ekstedt, T. W. (2021) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20436 · Cited by 32
“Rather than viewing knowledge as an abstract entity to be “acquired” and then “used,” a situated learning perspective suggests that knowing entails meaningful participation in activities situated within authentic practice (J. Brown et al., 1989; Engle & Conant, 2002; Manz et al., 2020).”
An SSI-Based STEAM Approach to Developing Science Programs
Mang, H. M. A., Chu, H., Martin, S. N., & Kim, C. (2021) · Asia-Pacific Science Education · doi:10.1163/23641177-bja10036 · Cited by 38
“1163/23641177-bja10036 | ASIA-PACIFIC SCIENCE EDUCATION (2021) 1–37 Situated learning highlights that knowledge construction is influenced by the specific content and cultures in which they are constructed (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWang, S., Bao, J., Liu, Y., & Zhang, D. (2023) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703297.2023.2236085 · Cited by 24
“Individual participation in practical activities and interaction with the environment are the fundamental paths through which learning occurs (Brown et al., 1989).”
InfluentialBecoming Authentic Professionals: Learning for Authenticity
Vu, T. T., & Dall’Alba, G. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1378-9_5 · Cited by 24
Mimetic Learning at Work: Learning Through and Across Professional Working Lives
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Lopez, L. M., Tessaro, W., Dechamboux, L., et al. (2012) · Questions vives recherches en éducation · doi:10.4000/questionsvives.1235 · Cited by 24
Measuring students' scientific content and inquiry reasoning
Gotwals, A. W., & Songer, N. B. (2006) · International Conference of Learning Sciences · Cited by 24
Forming Communities of Practice in Higher Education: A Theoretical Perspective
Jakovljević, M., Buckley, S. B., & Bushney, M. (2013) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 24
An investigation of scaffolded reading on EFL hypertext comprehension
Shang, H. (2015) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.1735 · Cited by 24
The Aalborg University PO-PBL Model from a Socio-cultural Learning Perspective
Hérnandez, C. H., Ravn, O., & Valero, P. (2015) · Journal of Problem Based Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.5278/ojs.jpblhe.v0i0.1206 · Cited by 24
Designing video narratives to contextualize content for ESL learners: a design process case study
South, J. B., Gabbitas, B. W., & Merrill, P. F. (2008) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820802114044 · Cited by 26
“Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989), in Situated cognition and the culture of learning , asserted that efforts in education often unwisely attempt to abstract knowledge from the situation in which it is learned.”
BackgroundEgbert, J. L., & Salsbury, T. (2009) · Teaching Education · doi:10.1080/10476210902998474 · Cited by 25
Help with solving technological problems in project activities
Hérold, J., & Ginestié, J. (2009) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-009-9106-8 · Cited by 30
“First and foremost, cognition is situated ( Brown et al. 1989; Hill and Smith 2005): so when faced with a situation, a problem to be solved, the cognitive system constructs a ‘‘mental model’’ (Johnson-Laird 1983; Mioduser and Dagan 2007), a ‘‘representation’’, in other words a transitory psychological construction det…”
BackgroundCherubini, G., Zambelli, F., & Boscolo, P. (2002) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/s0742-051x(01)00069-5 · Cited by 24
Ergazaki, M. I., Komis, V., & Zogza, V. (2005) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690500069376 · Cited by 24
“In the past few years, computer-supported educational environments have been developed on the basis of ‘socio-constructivist’ theories of knowledge (Brown et al., 1989; Vygotsky, 1978) with the aim of shaping a qualitatively different, supporting frame for the ‘teaching & learning’ process…”
BackgroundInformation processing: a review of implications of Johnstone’s model for science education
Clair‐Thompson, H. S., Overton, T., & Botton, C. (2010) · Research in Science & Technological Education · doi:10.1080/02635141003750479 · Cited by 26
Kong, S. C., & Kwok, L. F. (2002) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(02)00118-5 · Cited by 24
Translating Current Science into Materials for High School via a Scientist–Teacher Partnership
Brown, J. C., Bokor, J. R., Crippen, K. J., & Koroly, M. J. (2013) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10972-013-9371-y · Cited by 24
“Authentic activities exist in specific contexts, each with their own language and processes of enculturation (Brown et al., 1989; Gee, 2008; Gresalfi, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA framework for collaborative knowledge creation
Salisbury, M. W. (2008) · Knowledge Management Research & Practice · doi:10.1057/kmrp.2008.10 · Cited by 24
“It describes the essence of situated cognition as described by Brown et al. (1989).”
BackgroundThe Acquisition and Development of Fitness Trainers' Professional Knowledge
Lyon, A. D., & Cushion, C. J. (2012) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e3182653cc1 · Cited by 24
“In these instances, learning was situated within the context of their environment and involved a fluid and dynamic set of relationships and interactions with others, which resulted in a shared sense of meaning and collective understanding (3).”
BackgroundProject NEO: A Video Game to Promote STEM Competency for Preservice Elementary Teachers
Eck, R. N. V., Guy, M. D., Young, T., Winger, A. T., & Brewster, S. (2015) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-015-9245-9 · Cited by 26
“The theories of situated cognition and situated learning (Brown et al. 1989) suggest that transfer of learning is most likely when learning and performance contexts are identical and authentic (situated) and when learners are scaffolded and guided about the deep structure of the problem.”
BackgroundA review of Latin American perspectives on museums and museum learning
Briseño‐Garzón, A., & Anderson, D. P. (2012) · Museum Management and Curatorship · doi:10.1080/09647775.2012.674321 · Cited by 24
“It has been recognised, for instance, that context and content are inseparable in the learning process (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989 ; Butterworth 1993 ), and that even when learning tasks have identical content, differences in the ways people understand the world may result in different outcomes.”
BackgroundPetrosino, A. J. (2004) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-004-1466-y · Cited by 24
“These four categories are potentially very useful in discussing the classroom environment ( Brown et al., 1989 ) but to date, little research has been reported employing this conceptual framework.”
BackgroundKhaled, A. E., Gulikers, J. T. M., Biemans, H. J. A., & Mulder, M. (2014) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3138 · Cited by 31
“This situative perspective on learning originates from the idea that preparing students for their future requires confronting them with real world problems and contexts (De Corte, 2003), including the social dynamics related to that practice (Brown et al., 1989).”
BackgroundBonnici, L. J., Maatta, S. L., Klose, M. K., Julien, H., & Bajjaly, S. (2014) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2014.977860 · Cited by 31
“Aimed primarily at teaching the problem-solving processes that experts use to handle complex tasks, the centrality of effectiveness in CAM is learning in context, particularly situated cognition (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989; Anderson, Reder, and Simon 1996).”
BackgroundCollectible Card Games as Learning Tools
Türkay, S., Adinolf, S., & Tirthali, D. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.130 · Cited by 24
Quasi-Transfer as a Predictor of Transfer from Simulator to Airplane
Taylor, H. L., Lintern, G., & Koonce, J. M. (1993) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.1993.9711147 · Cited by 25
Behrman, E. H. (2003) · Reading Research and Instruction · doi:10.1080/19388070309558398 · Cited by 24
Oshima, J., Oshima, R., Murayama, I., Inagaki, S., Takenaka, M., Nakayama, H., & Yamaguchi, E. (2004) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/0950069032000138824 · Cited by 24
“Instruction should offer appropriate support or scaffolding, as in Bruner (1960), or cognitive apprenticeship (Brown et al. 1989) for learners to engage in constructing their relationship with their world.”
Background‘Economists Who Think like Ecologists’: Reframing Systems Thinking in Games for Learning
DeVane, B., Durga, S., & Squire, K. D. (2010) · E-Learning and Digital Media · doi:10.2304/elea.2010.7.1.3 · Cited by 31
“…has independently emphasized the importance of understanding concepts as elements in interconnected webs of meaning – related patterns, processes and elements – instead of abstract, self-contained symbolic structures (Papert, 1980; Burton et al, 1984; Brown et al, 1989; New London Group, 1996).”
Background‘We won't know it since we don't teach it’: Interactions between Teachers' Knowledge and Practice
Brodie, K., & Sanni, R. (2014) · African Journal of Research in Mathematics Science and Technology Education · doi:10.1080/10288457.2014.930980 · Cited by 26
Gosselin, M., Viau‐Guay, A., & Bourassa, B. (2014) · Perspectives interdisciplinaires sur le travail et la santé · doi:10.4000/pistes.4009 · Cited by 44
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Fede, J. L., Pierce, M. E., Matthews, W. J., & Wells, C. (2013) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/016264341302800102 · Cited by 26
Prospective Elementary Teachers Making Sense of Multidigit Multiplication: Leveraging Resources
Whitacre, I., & Nickerson, S. D. (2016) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.47.3.0270 · Cited by 24
Queering Participatory Design Research
McWilliams, J. (2016) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370008.2016.1172436 · Cited by 26
Role of knowledge brokers in communities of practice in Japan
Ishiyama, N. (2016) · Journal of Knowledge Management · doi:10.1108/jkm-03-2016-0098 · Cited by 24
“Situated learning has been tied to day-to-day activities (Lave, 1988), learning in D ow nl oa de d by U ni te d A ra b E m ir at es U ni ve rs ity A t 0 1: 27 2 4 A ug us t 2 01 6 (P T ) cognitive apprenticeship (Brown et al., 1989) through social interaction.”
BackgroundBianchini, J. A. (2016) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6300-749-8_33 · Cited by 25
Sternberg, R. J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557257.013.0047 · Cited by 30
Tsybulsky, D., Dodick, J., & Camhi, J. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-016-9601-3 · Cited by 24
Rahimi, F. B., & Kim, B. (2018) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-018-9451-6 · Cited by 30
“When learners use the contents or concepts in specific situations of use, they gain deep and situated understanding (Brown et al.1989; Clark 1991, 1993, 1998; Gee 2008).”
BackgroundAcademic and Culture Development Strategy Management for Islamic Higher Education In Indonesian
Mulyono, M., & Wekke, I. S. (2018) · IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science · doi:10.1088/1755-1315/175/1/012163 · Cited by 24
Konopasky, A., Durning, S. J., Artino, A. R., Ramani, D., & Battista, A. (2020) · Diagnosis · doi:10.1515/dx-2019-0103 · Cited by 24
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Learning to talk engineering design: Results from an interpretive study in a Grade 4/5 classroom
Roth, W. (1996) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/bf00419920 · Cited by 24
HRD's Role in Knowledge Management
Cho, Y., Cho, E., & McLean, G. N. (2009) · Advances in Developing Human Resources · doi:10.1177/1523422309337719 · Cited by 24
Lessons for Boosting the Effectiveness of Reading Coaches
McCombs, J. S., & Marsh, J. A. (2009) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/003172170909000710 · Cited by 25
A conceptual framework for a knowledge management system
Salisbury, M. W., & Plass, J. L. (2001) · Human Resource Development International · doi:10.1080/13678860010016913 · Cited by 24
“We show that it is performer centered (Laffey 1995) and its use applies the principles of situated cognition (Brown et al .”
BackgroundVirtual Patients: ED-2 Band-Aid or Valuable Asset in the Learning Portfolio?
Tworek, J., Coderre, S., Wright, B. J., & McLaughlin, K. (2009) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0b013e3181c4f8bf · Cited by 24
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“The pedagogical basis for the approach derives from theories of situated learning [4,14,32].”
Hepworth, M. E., & Wema, E. F. (2006) · Innovation in Teaching and Learning in Information and Computer Sciences · doi:10.11120/ital.2006.05010005 · Cited by 24
“This led the authors to choose situated, problem-based approaches to course design (Brown et al., 1989; Biggs & Moore, 1993; Mayes & de Freitas, 2004).”
BackgroundDifferent spaces: Staff development for Web 2.0
Samarawickrema, G., Benson, R., & Brack, C. M. (2010) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.1101 · Cited by 24
“The online (virtual) environment we designed for the workshop allowed participants to experience the complexity and ambiguity of real-world challenges, embedded learning in the social context within which it would be used ( Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989 ).”
MethodExpert and trainee determinations of rhetorical relevance in referral and consultation letters
Lingard, L., Hodges, B. D., MacRae, H., & Freeman, R. (2004) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2004.01745.x · Cited by 28
Cueing for Schema Construction: Designing Problem-Solving Multimedia Practicals
Hummel, H. G. K., & Nadolski, R. J. (2002) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1006/ceps.2001.1089 · Cited by 27
“They should demonstrate sufficient problem-solving ability to handle complex tasks in a variety of authentic situations ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Jonassen, 1991).”
BackgroundSense of Community in a Distance Education Course
Dueber, B., & Misanchuk, M. (2001) · Cited by 24
Learning Theories as Roots of Current Musical Practice and Research
Taetle, L. D., & Cutietta, R. A. (2004) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195138849.003.0020 · Cited by 24
Developing Key Competences for Life-Long Learning through Virtual Collaboration
Vinagre, M. (2016) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0177-0.ch008 · Cited by 24
Fidelity of Implementation in Three Sequential Curricular Units
Songer, N. B., & Gotwals, A. W. (2005) · Cited by 24
A Neuro-fuzzy Approach in Student Modeling
Stathacopoulou, R., Grigoriadou, M., Magoulas, G. D., et al. (2003) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-44963-9_46 · Cited by 24
“Within this framework, the design is based on a series of principles, which emphasize the student’s active involvement in authentic activities, which correspond to real world processes (situated/anchored learning) [ 2 ],[11].”
MethodMajoring in Technology Studies at High School and Fostering Learning
Barak, M., Waks, S., & Doppelt, Y. (2000) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1023/a:1026548211500 · Cited by 24
“This is the basis for the transfer of knowledge and thinking skills to related fields ( Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Lave, 1988).”
BackgroundCharacteristics of Mathematics Items Associated With Gender DIF
Li, Y., Cohen, A. S., & Ibarra, R. A. (2004) · International Journal of Testing · doi:10.1207/s15327574ijt0402_2 · Cited by 24
Supporting Human Performance Across Disciplines: A Converging of Roles and Tools
Sherry, L., & Wilson, B. (2008) · Performance Improvement Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1937-8327.1996.tb00736.x · Cited by 24
Mathematics Performance Assessment: Technical Quality and Diverse Student Impact
Baxter, G. P., Shavelson, R. J., Herman, S. J., et al. (1993) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.24.3.0190 · Cited by 24
“Furthermore, a high proportion of these students experience difficulty learning in traditional schools, perhaps because of the unfamiliar contextualization of their learning experiences (e.g., Brenner, in preparation; Brown et al., 1989; Duran, 1989; Saxe, 1988; Tharp, 1989; Weisner, Gallimore, & Jordon, 1988).”
BackgroundQuinney, A., Hutchings, M., & Scammell, J. M. E. (2008) · Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/02615470802201754 · Cited by 25
“The degree of reality and situatedness (Brown et al., 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991) within Wessex Bay was commented on positively through case studies evolving as further material was added by tutors and the facility to search for links in the community to other people and places, enabling Wessex Bay to resemble realisti…”
BackgroundMethodUsing Assessment to Induct Students and Staff into the PBL Tutorial Process
Zimitat, C., & Miflin, B. (2003) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602930301685 · Cited by 24
“Barrows’ (1992) Tutorial Process and notions of cognitive apprenticeship (Brown et al., 1989) which both involve the induction of novices into expert ways of knowing, thinking and reasoning informed our views of ideal processes that occur in PBL curricula.”
BackgroundHuman enculturation, chimpanzee enculturation (?) and the nature of imitation
Whiten, A. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x0003154x · Cited by 23
Oshima, J., Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1995) · Computer-supported collaborative learning/The Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Conference · doi:10.3115/222020.222203 · Cited by 24
Tennyson, R. D., Elmore, R. L., & Snyder, L. L. (1992) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02297046 · Cited by 24
“That is, contextual knowledge indudes not only information (i.e., content/task), but also the cultural aspects directly associated with that information ( Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989 ).”
BackgroundReflecting on the Archetypes of Teaching
Mayes, C. T. (1999) · Teaching Education · doi:10.1080/1047621990100202 · Cited by 24
Lainema, T. (2008) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878107308074 · Cited by 28
“One of the central texts in the constructivist “movement” has been Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989).”
BackgroundLearning from people, things, and signs
Hoffmann, M. H. G. (2007) · Studies in Philosophy and Education · doi:10.1007/s11217-007-9027-5 · Cited by 24
“Consider for example the discussions on “cognitive apprenticeship” and “scaffolding” (cf. Collins et al., 1989; Brown et al., 1989; Rogoff, 1989; Lave, 1993; Lave, 1997); or those on “enactivism” which emphasise in the tradition of Jerome Bruner the relevance of bodily activities for learning processes (Bruner, 1960,…”
BackgroundErickson, G., Mayer-Smith, J. A., Rodríguez, A. J., Chin, P., & Mitchell, I. (1994) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/0950069940160508 · Cited by 24
Cognitive Apprenticeship for Learners with Special Needs
Rojewski, J. W., & Schell, J. W. (1994) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/074193259401500405 · Cited by 25
“Because learning is viewed as a complex and interconnected whole, both basic (academic) and advanced cognitive skills are emphasized simultaneously (Brown et al., 1989a; Collins et al., 1991).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPreservice Teachers' Field Experiences with Technology.
Balli, S. J., Wright, M. D., & Foster, P. N. (1997) · Educational Technology archive · Cited by 24
The discovery of situated worlds: Analytic commitments, or moral orders?
Macbeth, D. H. (1996) · Human Studies · doi:10.1007/bf00144022 · Cited by 23
“The Social Science Citation Index shows in excess of 50 citations to Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) in 1993, and 1994.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe evolution of pedagogic models for work-based learning within a virtual university
Bradley, C., & Oliver, M. (2002) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(01)00078-1 · Cited by 24
3 rd Generation Learning Platforms. Requirements and Motivation for Collaborative Learning
Laister, J. K. (2001) · European Journal of Open Distance and E-Learning · Cited by 24
Learning stages and person conceptions
Goldman, A. I. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00031344 · Cited by 24
Fostering creativity and critical thinking in university teaching and learning
Saroyan, A. (2022) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/09b1cb3b-en · Cited by 35
Oswald, A. E., Bell, M. J., Wiseman, J., & Snell, L. (2011) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/1472-6920-11-65 · Cited by 23
“Patient educator programs were initially grounded in Bandura’s social learning theory and bridge both Lave’s Situated Learning Theory and Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory [40-42].”
BackgroundChen, W., Li, T., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · npj Heritage Science · doi:10.1038/s40494-025-01821-9 · Cited by 30
“Third, the Situational Dimension posits that cog-nitionalwaysoccursinspeci fi cenvironments,beingaprocesswheresubjects construct new meanings by combining their current situation with existing knowledge 58 .”
An analysis of the competency-based secondary mathematics curriculum in Sri Lanka
Egodawatte, G. (2013) · Educational Research for Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s10671-013-9145-5 · Cited by 23
“This education helps them to achieve life experiences rather than academic disciplines (Brown et al. 1989).”
Backgroundvan Hell, J. G., Bosnian, A. M. T., & Bartelings, M. C. G. (2003) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.2307/1593637 · Cited by 23
Induction and mentoring of novice teachers: a scheme for the United Arab Emirates
Ibrahim, A. S. (2012) · Teacher Development · doi:10.1080/13664530.2012.688676 · Cited by 23
“Learning to teach effectively can only be accomplished by engaging the novice teacher in authentic tasks of teaching (Ball and Cohen 1999 ) under the guidance of an expert teacher in order to learn the skills of the profession (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989 ).”
BackgroundBringing the Real World in: Reflection on Building a Virtual Learning Environment
Mundkur, A., & Ellickson, C. (2012) · Journal of Geography in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03098265.2012.692073 · Cited by 23
“For us, the “safe laboratory” takes the form of a VLE that exemplifies a situated learning approach (Brown et al., 1989), defined “as the notion of learning knowledge and skills in contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will be useful in real life” (Collins, 1998, p.”
BackgroundSoslau, E. G. (2015) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.02.012 · Cited by 25
Closed Systems and Standardized Writing Tests
Anson, C. M. (2016) · Cited by 23
Teacher education students’ struggles with group work in service learning
Petersen, N. F., & Petker, G. (2017) · South African Journal of Childhood Education · doi:10.4102/sajce.v7i1.479 · Cited by 25
Cassara, M., Schertzer, K. A., Falk, M., Wong, A. H.-W., Hock, S. M., Bentley, S., Paetow, G., Conlon, L. W., Hughes, P. G., McKenna, R. T., et al. (2019) · AEM Education and Training · doi:10.1002/aet2.10418 · Cited by 22
“When instructors model “thinking aloud during practice” it is a form of cognitive apprenticeship.(74,75) Similarly, sharing with learners that the journey to expertise is challenging, and asking learners to remain mindful of their own feelings during this period of development is important.”
BackgroundHuggins, K. S., Klar, H. W., & Andreoli, P. M. (2020) · Educational Administration Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0013161x20915948 · Cited by 34
“The social interaction that occurs in professional communities is considered a critical component of the acquisition of new knowledge and learning (Bandura, 1977; Boreham & Morgan, 2004; Brown et al., 1989; Grabinger et al., 2007; Lave & Wenger, 1991).”
BackgroundKörkkö, M., Kotilainen, M.-R., Toljamo, S., et al. (2020) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2020.1827393 · Cited by 23
Identifying teachers’ general pedagogical knowledge: A video stimulated recall study
Malva, L., Leijen, Ä., & Arcidiacono, F. (2021) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2021.1873738 · Cited by 30
“While the teacher research was shifted to cognition and action, several authors (e.g. Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989; Leinhardt 1988) emphasized that teachers’ knowledge should be studied in the situation in which it has been used.”
BackgroundBaier‐Mosch, F., Maurer, C., Dignath, C., & Kunter, M. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09560-7 · Cited by 38
“From this perspective, the implementation of effective classroom management is only likely if the instructional situation, in which pre-service teachers learned classroom management strategies, does not differ too widely from the situation in which they have to use them later on (Brown et al., 1989; Renkl et al., 1996…”
BackgroundCreely, E., Henriksen, D., Crawford, R., & Henderson, M. (2021) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100951 · Cited by 23
Associating creativity, context, and experiential learning
Hondzel, C. D., & Hansen, R. (2015) · Education Inquiry · doi:10.3402/edui.v6.23403 · Cited by 23
Microblogging for strengthening a virtual learning community in an online course
Hsu, Y., & Ching, Y. (2011) · Knowledge Management & E-Learning An International Journal · doi:10.34105/j.kmel.2011.03.039 · Cited by 23
Metadata
- Authors
- Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P.
- Affiliations
- Institute for Research on Learning, 2550 Hanover Street, Palo Alto, California 94304.
- BBN Inc, 10 Moulton Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02238
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1989-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 32-42
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2164599981
- Cited by
- 13,645
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 324 · 2025: 322 · 2024: 255 · 2023: 271 · 2022: 384 · 2021: 446 · 2020: 520 · 2019: 472 · 2018: 467 · 2017: 513 · 2016: 525 · 2015: 585 · 2014: 628 · 2013: 637 · 2012: 651
- FWCI
- 128.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovative Education and Learning Practices
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Educational Theory and Curriculum Studies
- Keywords
- situated cognition, learning culture, cognitive apprenticeship, situated knowledge, school culture, mathematics education, conceptual knowledge, everyday cognition, teaching practice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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