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Inactivation of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 by WHO-Recommended Hand Rub Formulations and Alcohols
Open accessAbstract
evere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the third highly pathogenic human coronavirus to cross the species barrier into the human population during the past 20 years (1-3).SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which is characterized by severe respiratory distress, fever, and cough and high rates of mortality, especially in older persons and those with underlying health conditions (3).The World Health Organization (WHO) declared SARS-CoV-2 a pandemic on March 11, 2020 (4), and by April 8, a total of 1,447,466 confirmed cases and 83,471 deaths from SARS-CoV-2 had been reported worldwide (5).Human-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is efficient, and infected persons can transmit the virus even when they have no, or only mild, symptoms (3).Because no antiviral drugs or vaccines are available, virus containment and prevention of infection are the current highest priorities.To limit virus spread, effective hand hygiene is crucial.Therefore, easily available but efficient disinfectants are needed.WHO's guidelines for hand hygiene in healthcare suggest 2 alcohol-based formulations for hand sanitization to reduce the infectivity and spread of pathogens (6).WHO's recommendations are based on fastacting, broad-spectrum microbicidal activity, along with accessibility and safety.The original WHO formulations failed to meet the efficacy requirements of European Norm 1500 in previous tests (7).However, Suchomel et al. (8) suggested modified versions with increased concentrations of ethanol: 80% (wt/ wt) (85.5% [vol/vol]; formulation I), or isopropanol, 75% (wt/wt) (81.3% [vol/vol]; formulations II).Later, they complemented these by reducing the glycerol concentrations (9).We previously showed that these modified WHO formulations were able to inactivate severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV; 10), which are related to SARS-CoV-2.Current recommendations to inactivate SARS-CoV-2 were translated from findings of other coronaviruses (11).To evaluate whether these alcohol-based disinfectants also effectively inactivate SARS-CoV-2, we tested different concentrations of the original and modified WHO formulations I and II (6,9), ethanol, and 2-propanol for virucidal activity.
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“The ethanol or isopropanol alcohol has been shown to inactivate SARS-COV-2 (Kratzel et al. 2020).”
From Hand hygiene with hand sanitizer versus handwashing: what are the planetary health consequences? (2022) · cites this paper as Kratzel et al. 2020
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Lai, C.-C., Shih, T.-P., Ko, W.-C., Tang, H.-J., & Hsueh, P.-R. (2020) · International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents · doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924 · Cited by 6,068
Isolation of a Novel Coronavirus from a Man with Pneumonia in Saudi Arabia
Zaki, A. M., van Boheemen, S., Bestebroer, T. M., Osterhaus, A. D. M. E., & Fouchier, R. A. M. (2012) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1211721 · Cited by 5,677
Identification of a novel coronavirus in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome
Drosten, C., Günther, S., Preiser, W., van der Werf, S., Brodt, H.-R., Becker, S., Rabenau, H., Panning, M., Kolesnikova, L., Fouchier, R. A. M., et al. (2003) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa030747 · Cited by 4,574
Self-citationPersistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents.
Kampf, G., Todt, D., Pfaender, S., & Steinmann, E. (2020) · Journal of Hospital Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022 · Cited by 3,796
Self-citationEuropean Committee for Standardization
(2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41714-6_51763 · Cited by 3,290
Siddharta, A., Pfaender, S., Vielle, N. J., Dijkman, R., Friesland, M., Becker, B., Yang, J., Engelmann, M., Tödt, D., Windisch, M. P., et al. (2017) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jix046 · Cited by 208
Self-citationSuchomel, M., Kundi, M., Pittet, D., & Rotter, M. L. (2013) · Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology · doi:10.1086/669528 · Cited by 28
Suchomel, M., Kundi, M., Allegranzi, B., Pittet, D., & Rotter, M. L. (2011) · Journal of Hospital Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2011.05.005 · Cited by 27
George, V. G., Hierholzer, J. C., & Ades, E. W. (1996) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012465330-6/50002-6 · Cited by 17
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Carbon-negative production of acetone and isopropanol by gas fermentation at industrial pilot scale
Liew, F. E., Nogle, R., Abdalla, T., Rasor, B. J., Canter, C. E., Jensen, R. O., Wang, L., Strutz, J., Chirania, P., Tissera, S. L. D., et al. (2022) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-021-01195-w · Cited by 496
Mahmood, A., Eqan, M., Pervez, S., Alghamdi, H. A., Tabinda, A. B., Yasar, A., Brindhadevi, K., & Pugazhendhi, A. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140561 · Cited by 311
Rapid inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 with deep-UV LED irradiation
Inagaki, H., Saito, A., Sugiyama, H., Okabayashi, T., & Fujimoto, S. (2020) · Emerging Microbes & Infections · doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1796529 · Cited by 292
Honein, M. A., Christie, A., Rose, D. A., Brooks, J. T., Meaney‐Delman, D. M., Cohn, A. C., Sauber‐Schatz, E. K., Walker, A. T., McDonald, L. C., Liburd, L. C., et al. (2020) · MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report · doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6949e2 · Cited by 258
Hand hygiene in health care: 20 years of ongoing advances and perspectives
Lotfinejad, N., Peters, A., Tartari, E., Fankhauser-Rodriguez, C., Pires, D., & Pittet, D. (2021) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(21)00383-2 · Cited by 256
Metadata
- Authors
- Kratzel, A., Todt, D., V’kovski, P., Steiner, S., Gultom, M., Thao, T. T. N., Ebert, N., Holwerda, M., Steinmann, J., Niemeyer, D., Dijkman, R., Kampf, G., Drosten, C., Steinmann, E., Thiel, V., & Pfaender, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Bern (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Pfaender, Stephanie
- ORCID
- Venue
- Emerging Infectious Diseases
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 26
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1592-1595
- ISSN
- 1080-6040 (ISSN-L)
- 1080-6059
- PMC
- PMC7323537
- OpenAlex
- W3015839776
- Cited by
- 375
- References
- 9
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 44 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 133 · 2020: 84
- FWCI
- 46.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Emerging infectious diseases (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pulmonary and Respiratory Medicine › Infection Control and Ventilation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Infection Control in Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
- Keywords
- SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 pandemic, hand sanitizer, alcohol-based disinfectants, hand hygiene, virus inactivation, ethanol, isopropanol, glycerol, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, glycerol concentration
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Alcohols, Disinfectants, Hand Disinfection, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, World Health Organization, Coronavirus Infections, Virus Inactivation, Pandemics
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