The DOI matches its Crossref record; 2 of the 2 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 20 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Women’s Agency and the Development of Women’s Intercollegiate Athletics, 1961-2001
Open accessAbstract
Autonomous women’s athletics had a strong foundation, especially in central Canada, from the 1920s. The expansion of women’s programs from the 1960s on was due primarily to the agency of university women athletes overcoming institutional and cultural indifference. A national intercollegiate organization for women was established in 1969 to encourage women’s sports and merged with the men’s organization in 1978. The immediate result of the union was a decline in women’s autonomy and representation, but women students’ athletic participation rates steadily increased. Women's representation within the CIAU (now CIS) rose dramatically in the 1990s with pressures for gender equality. Raising the profile of women’s sports, however, has had the unintended consequence of subsuming autonomy and the sense of a distinctive mission within a male model of elite competition and commercialization.
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39 Own result · 38 Own interpretation · 19 Sources not found · 9 No basis given · 5 Not checked yet
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In the paper
“Yet university women encountered resistance to their athletic endeavours from outsiders.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The WCIAA meeting at Alberta, May 13-15, 1965, had called for an approach to the WIAU to hold women's national intercollegiate championships.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“By the late 1920s Canadian physical educators themselves had become cautious about women's athletics.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Canadian women's relative participation rates are higher than those of university women in the United States despite Title IX.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [87]
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In the paper
“Women at McGill, Queen's, and Toronto established their own separate governing body, the Women's Intercollegiate Athletic Union (WIAU), in 1921”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Yet, women's athletics received less than did men's in every university.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [53]
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In the paper
“In 1962 Maury Van Vliet, Dean of Physical Education at Alberta, introduced a motion that would have excluded women from the western association:”
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In the paper
“An independent women's national sport organization with a clear advocacy mandate, the Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport (CAAW&S), was founded in 1981.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“The immediate result was a decline in female institutional representatives to the CIAU and in program administration.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“Thereafter, all athletic directors were male.”
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In the paper
“Women participants increased by 86 per cent, men by 35 per cent, 1978-1995 (Table 2).”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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“Women accounted for less than 20 per cent of coaching and 30 per cent of leadership positions in the national sporting organizations in the 1980s.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [85]
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In the paper
“The West, supported by the Maritimes, neither of which had independent women's organizations, wanted a national organization.Ontario women were less enthusiastic.They uniquely had a strong organization of their own and felt less need for a national body.They also were suspicious of the linkage between organization and national championships.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“They constituted 43 per cent (50 per cent in Ontario) of athletic administrators in 1998-99 as compared to 26 per cent (and only 9 per cent outside Ontario) two decades earlier.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“The number of university sports teams remained constant for men (253 to 257) but jumped from 136 to 211 for women.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“On the weekend of March 5-6, 1971, the first official women's national championships were held in swimming and diving at Waterloo, gymnastics at York, and volleyball at Calgary.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“The WIAU conducted its first intercollegiate championships in hockey, swimming, and basketball, 1921-22.”
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In the paper
“Women achieved equality with men on CIAU committees in 1986-87 (from one-third four years earlier).”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The first truly national intercollegiate athletic association [for men], the Canadian Intercollegiate Athletic Union (CIAU) was also formed in 1961.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
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In the paper
“At the University of Waterloo, men's sports received $65,400 support in 1967, women's $10,000.Travel allocation was $30,000 for men, $4,000 for women.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In Atlantic Canada, a separate women's organization conducted intercollegiate and intramural competition during the 1960s, but university presidents pressured it to amalgamate with the men's organization in 1973-74 so as to set common eligibility rules and simplify administrative structures.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The number of sanctioned women's sports increased from three in 1971 to seven in 1978 to nine (equal to men) in 1996 to eleven (one more than men) in 2001 (Table 4).”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“Women physical educators also met at two important conferences in 1974 and 1975 to advance women's athletic programs.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“Saskatchewan, for example, reduced women's sports from thirteen to five, although Patricia Jackson became the first Canadian female athletic director there in 1973.25”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The motion was defeated, but women delegates had little influence in the WCIAA despite a guarantee of equal representation in the 1962 constitution.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The CIAU did not collect gender statistics on athletes after 1995 because it concluded that participation equity had been achieved.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Representation by women was to be guaranteed but the guarantee proved to be empty, with as few as two women at some meetings.”
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In the paper
“They constituted 35 per cent of athletes in 1995, but if athletes in men'sonly sports of football, ice hockey (at the time), and wrestling are excluded, there were eleven more female than male athletes;”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
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In the paper
“These women were a small minority of university students and faculty.”
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In the paper
“Women's basketball in Ontario universities followed Spalding (Girls') rules until 1966 (six on a team and movement over two-thirds of the court) because of the perceived physical limitations of women, but it was the women's athletic committee that ultimately changed those rules and trained women coaches for the revised game.14”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [14]
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In the paper
“In that year, Ottawa established the National Fitness and Amateur Sport Advisory Council to give federal direction to sport in accord with An Act of Fitness and Amateur Sport (September 29, 1961).”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
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In the paper
“Quebec, uniquely in the 1970s, de-emphasized intercollegiate athletics, partly for financial reasons, in favour of mass participation, after its emphasis in the 1960s on intercollegiate teams.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
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In the paper
“Presently there are twenty-six women and thirteen men coaching women's university basketball teams full-time in Canada.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
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In the paper
“A major issue of the 1990s became”
- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
“equity”
- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
“and whether”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [101]
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- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The newly sanctioned CIAU sports for women at the end of the millennium -ice hockey, rugby, and wrestling -began as intramural or club sports initiated by women students.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
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In the paper
“In 1972 90 per cent of women's teams were coached by women; in 1997 only 48 per cent were.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
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In the paper
“At all levels women are engaging in sports once restricted to men's domain, becoming faster and stronger and matching men's performance in long-distance events.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Male part-time coaches have increased by ninety-two, women by only twenty, in two decades (Table 3).”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“but many universities kept and still keep separate budgets for football and ice hockey.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The University of Toronto's Department of Athletics and Recreation task force in 1994 established the principle that”
- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
“whereas EQUALITY means treating persons the same, EQUITY means treating persons in ways that are fair.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between 1993 and 1997 the CIAU developed a genderintegrated sponsorship and television package to assure greater exposure for women's sport.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Women physical educators, who were the coaches of women's teams, were indeed fewer (only 22 per cent even in Ontario), younger, and dealing with entrenched males at senior levels.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [96]
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In the paper
“Women coached 75 per cent of women's teams in 1978-79 but the proportion became fifty-fifty in 1985; now, males are a majority of full-time coaches.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Women hockey players at Toronto in 1995 had to buy their own sticks and the track team its own uniforms.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Despite finishing fourth at the national finals in 2002, the women's track team at the University of Waterloo had no track on which to practice.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [104]
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plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to a New York Times report only one-third of Division One women coaches in the United States were married and only one in six had children in 2000; the percentages for male coaches were 90 and 80 respectively.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After calls for”
- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
“equity”
- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
“for a decade, the OWIAA amalgamated with the OUAA [Ontario University Athletic Association] in 1997 (afterward OUA [Ontario University Athletics]) primarily to get television exposure for women's sports and also to promote general efficiency.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § New Initiatives by Women Athletes · plain
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the year Title IX was passed, 80 per cent of women's athletic programs had women directors.Seven years later half of women's programs were under male jurisdiction; in 1997, 80 per cent were.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Moreover, the Carnegie Commission had criticized excess competition in all intercollegiate athletics of the 1920s while praising Canada's universities for preserving the ideal of the scholar-amateur-athlete. 18”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“intercollegiate sport is one of the most sensitive areas for gender because the women who attended university were, until recently, primarily white, middle-class women who were especially subject to cultural expectations of marriage and motherhood.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Until recently, women who attended university were primarily white, middle-class women especially subject to cultural expectations of marriage and motherhood.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 1970 Report of the Royal Commission on Women (established in Canada's Centennial year) was a galvanizing event and provided a platform for change.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Equality for women's sport threatened the gender order of society.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [16]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Soviet victories in hockey at the international levels and a desire to use federal institutions to promote Canadian unity played a greater role.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women were seeking a forum for achievement and recognition in a sexist atmosphere.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That secondary purpose quickly became the primary one and started Canada on the path to elitism in athletics (male athletics, at first).”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To counter these biases, women physical educators were organizing and attempting to raise consciousness.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Facing institutional obstacles, fighting general social bias, and trying to preserve autonomy, they were pioneers in a harsh environment.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women achieved a stronger national organization, more political clout, and support for national championships.They suffered the loss of an independent forum for women's voices.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both the formation of CWIAU (1969) and the inauguration of formal national intercollegiate women's championships (1971) were attempts to put women's sport front and centre.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Canadian sport media were far kinder and more supportive of women athletes in this era than was true of the male-dominated media in the United States.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] 8. Halifax Chronicle, Jan. 24, 1991. For similar tensions between women's sport and football expenditures in the U.S., see John R. Thelin, "Good Sports? Historical Perspective on the Political Economy of Intercollegiate Athletic in the Era of Title IX, 1972-1997," The Journal of Higher Education 71, 4 (July/Aug. 2000): 391-410. 106
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“National championships for both men and women were the main means of increasing visibility for university sport, which had suffered since the 1950s when television had brought international and American sports into Canadian homes.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the West, Spalding rules were never adopted because of the preponderance of male coaches and the success of the Edmonton Grads.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A statement the paper makes itself — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Trained in the United States because there were no Canadian graduate programs in physical education, they were influenced by developments there.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A new era for Canadian sport began in1961.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adventurous women at campuses across Canada were again taking things into their own hands.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we have seen, women's sports historically occupied a secondary place and struggled to receive adequate funding.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Larger cultural forces had come into play in the 1980s and 1990s with many young women, inheritors of the feminist movement, suddenly interested in playing sports like ice hockey, rugby, lacrosse, and soccer that their mothers had rarely played.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Historically, women athletes had to battle exclusionary practices and two cultural ideals: that their bodies were unsuited to strenuous physical activity and that sports masculinized women, raising the lesbian spectre.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While opportunities and financial support for women student athletes have increased significantly, Title IX eventually led to the demise of the AIAW and women's control over intercollegiate athletics...”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [100]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With today's media and marketing pressures, the likely alternative was continued marginalization.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Equity rather than strict equality is the present goal.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sport has helped women liberate their bodies, although tension remains between freedom, sexuality, and sexualization.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such policies are rooted in the initiatives of hosts of individual women students and administrators over the last four decades.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, gender equality was a two-edged sword.It increased attention to and expanded intercollegiate women's sports but reduced women's control.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > New Initiatives by Women Athletes
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Until recently, women who attended university were primarily white, middle-class women especially subject to cultural expectations of marriage and motherhood.
“the women who attended university were, until recently, primarily white, middle-class women who were especially subject to cultural expectations of marriage and motherhood.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Medical opinion from the nineteenth century warned of the harm that strenuous physical activity could do to a woman's reproductive system and general health.
“Medical opinion from the nineteenth century warned of the harm that strenuous physical activity could do to a woman's reproductive system and general health.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Depression brought a general conservatism, with womanhood linked to a social role within the family, an attitude that persisted until the 1960s.
“The Depression brought a general conservatism, with womanhood linked to a social role within the family, an attitude that persisted until the 1960s.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The late 1960s and early 1970s was a period of social and cultural change, but conservatism reigned during the first two decades of the post-war period in Canadian society.
“The late 1960s and early 1970s was a period of social and cultural change, but conservatism reigned during the first two decades of the post-war period in Canadian society.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There was an overt return to traditional gender roles, as women were expected to leave the workforce and return to the home to raise a family.
“There was an overt return to traditional gender roles, as women were expected to leave the workforce and return to the home to raise a family.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The message from all corners told women to embrace femininity.
“The message from all corners told women to embrace femininity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Masculinity and femininity were seen as two poles, with stigmatized stereotypes of women athletes as unfeminine.
“Masculinity and femininity were seen as two poles, with stigmatized stereotypes of women athletes as unfeminine.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Idealized women's sports were individual rather than team - those that required less exertion, sweat, and physical contact.
“Idealized women's sports were individual rather than team -those that required less exertion, sweat (boys sweat, girls perspire), and physical contact.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The individual athletes' and administrators' experiences described are representative of broader trends in Canadian women's intercollegiate athletics.
“The different attitudes of these athletes illustrate an evolution.”
“Adventurous women at campuses across Canada were again taking things into their own hands.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
“but if athletes in men'sonly sports of football, ice hockey (at the time), and wrestling are excluded, there were eleven more female than male athletes;”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Additional information
“1978-79 1982-83 1985-86 1991-92 1994-95 1994-95** Male 4425 5077 (15%) 5358* (6%) 5636 (5%) 5960* (6%) 3206 Female 1714 2151 (25%) 2321 (8%) 2899 (25%) 3195 (10%) 3195”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“CIAU 53 19 79 23 79 41 93 53 89 66 32 11”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
Reported 53 · recomputed 55
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“CIAU 44 25 57 18 48 21 42 28 49 22 46 30”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
Reported 30 · recomputed 33
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
“They constituted 43 per cent (50 per cent in Ontario) of athletic administrators in 1998-99 as compared to 26 per cent (and only 9 per cent outside Ontario) two decades earlier.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
“CIAU 53 19 79 23 79 41 93 53 89 66 32 11 Atlantic 10 1 10 0 13 1 16 10 13 9 7 3 Quebec 8 1 23 1 31 15 29 14 13 2 5 0 Ontario 22 14 27 15 25 19 36 20 40 39 10 7”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > National Organization and Competition
“The women's committee of CAHPER became the de facto organizing committee for the formation of the CIAU.”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Expansion of Intercollegiate Athletics
“The first truly national intercollegiate athletic association [for men], the Canadian Intercollegiate Athletic Union (CIAU) was also formed in 1961.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“CIAU 53 19 79 23 79 41 93 53 89 66 32 11”
§ Historical Studies in Education / Revue d'histoire de l'éducation > Conclusion
Reported 93 · recomputed 88
Citations
Cites
Discourses on the gender/sport relationship: from women in sport to gender relations.
Birrell, S. (1988) · PubMed · Cited by 112
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- [2]2. J.F. LeDrew et al., "CIAU Athletes' Perceptions of Coaching and Female Coaches," in Proceedings for the 10 th Commonwealth and International Scientific Congress, ed. F.I.
- [4]4. Kitchener-Waterloo Record, Feb. 17, 2001. 100 Ying Wushanley, "From 'Educational Model' to 'Commercial Enterprise': The Philosophical Change of U.S. Women's Intercollegiate Athletics in the Title IX Era," 28 th NASSH Conference (May 26-30, 2000), 1, 7;
- [7]7. In addition, UW should provide women coaches and athletic administrators with the same responsibility and career opportunities as men." University of Waterloo Archives, A77/0004. 102 Sopinka, Can I Play, 114. 103 Interviews, Joanne MacLean, Elizabeth Chard, and some athletic directors who did not wish to be named. 104 University of Waterloo, Imprint, Mar. 15, 2002. 105 The Globe and Mail, Jan. 17, 1994; Winnipeg Free Press, Apr. 24, 1995;
- [8]8. Halifax Chronicle, Jan. 24, 1991. For similar tensions between women's sport and football expenditures in the U.S., see John R. Thelin, "Good Sports? Historical Perspective on the Political Economy of Intercollegiate Athletic in the Era of Title IX, 1972-1997," The Journal of Higher Education 71, 4 (July/Aug. 2000): 391-410. 106
Metadata
- Authors
- Harrigan, P. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Harrigan, Patrick J.
- Venue
- Historical Studies in Education / Revue d histoire de l éducation
- Publisher
- Historical Studies in Education
- Published
- 2003-05-01
- Pages
- 37-76
- ISSN
- 0843-5057 (ISSN-L)
- 1911-9674
- OpenAlex
- W2166097920
- Cited by
- 2
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 0.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- Historical Studies in Education / Revue d histoire de l éducation (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sports, Gender, and Society
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Sport and Mega-Event Impacts
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Canadian Identity and History
- Keywords
- women's college athletics, women's agency, female athletes, college athletics, CIS, gender equality, women's sports organizations, commercialization of sport
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
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