The Consequences of Remote and Hybrid Instruction During the Pandemic
Open accessAbstract
Using testing data from 2.1 million students in 10,000 schools in 49 states (plus D.C.), we investigate the role of remote and hybrid instruction in widening gaps in achievement by race and school poverty.We find that remote instruction was a primary driver of widening achievement gaps.Math gaps did not widen in areas that remained in-person (although there was some widening in reading gaps in those areas).We estimate that high-poverty districts that went remote in 2020-21 will need to spend nearly all of their federal aid on academic recovery to help students recover from pandemic-related achievement losses.
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Black, Hispanic, and low-income students were disproportionately harmed by school closures and related disruptions and experienced greater learning loss.
“research has shown Black, Hispanic, and low-income students were disproportionately harmed by school closures and related academic disruptions (Goldhaber et al., 2022), and as a result experienced even greater learning loss due to the pandemic”
From Unequal Learning Loss: How the COVID-19 Pandemic Influenced the Academic Growth of Learners at the Tails of the Achievement Distribution (2025) · cites this paper as Goldhaber et al., 2022
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References 15 · Cited by 148
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Murnane, Richard J., John B. Willett and Frank Levy. 1995. "The Growing Importance of Cognitive Skills in Wage Determination" The Review of Economics and Statistics Vol. 77, No. 2 (May, 1995), pp. 251-266.
- Neal, Derek A. and William R. Johnson. 1996. "The Role of Premarket Factors in Black-White Wage Differences", Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 104, No. 5 (October), pp. 869-895.
- Nickow, A., Oreopoulos, P., & Quan, V. 2020. The impressive effects of tutoring on prek-12 learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the experimental evidence (Working Paper 27476). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
- Nomi, T. and E. Allensworth (2009) "Double-dose algebra as an alternative strategy to remediation: Effects on students' academic outcome" Journal for Research on Educational Effectiveness Vol. 2, pp. 111-148.
- Authors
- Goldhaber, D., Kane, T., McEachin, A., Morton, E., Patterson, T., & Staiger, D.
- Affiliations
- Dartmouth College (US)
- Venue
- National Bureau of Economic Research
- Publisher
- National Bureau of Economic Research
- Published
- 2022-05
- OpenAlex
- W4229457602
- Cited by
- 148
- References
- 15
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 2
- Type
- report
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Carnegie Corporation of New York
- Harvard University
- Walton Family Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts
- Keywords
- remote instruction, hybrid instruction, COVID-19 pandemic, achievement gap, racial disparities, school poverty, academic recovery, federal education funding, reading achievement
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