Phosphatidic Acid: From Pleiotropic Functions to Neuronal Pathology
Open accessAbstract
Among the cellular lipids, phosphatidic acid (PA) is a peculiar one as it is at the same time a key building block of phospholipid synthesis and a major lipid second messenger conveying signaling information. The latter is thought to largely occur through the ability of PA to recruit and/or activate specific proteins in restricted compartments and within those only at defined submembrane areas. Furthermore, with its cone-shaped geometry PA locally changes membrane topology and may thus be a key player in membrane trafficking events, especially in membrane fusion and fission steps, where lipid remodeling is believed to be crucial. These pleiotropic cellular functions of PA, including phospholipid synthesis and homeostasis together with important signaling activity, imply that perturbations of PA metabolism could lead to serious pathological conditions. In this mini-review article, after outlining the main cellular functions of PA, we highlight the different neurological diseases that could, at least in part, be attributed to an alteration in PA synthesis and/or catabolism.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Conversion of DAG into PA generates a bioactive metabolite with multiple functions.
“In principle, conversion of DAG into PA also generates a bioactive metabolite with multiple functions [54–58].”
From Phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate: diverse functions at the plasma membrane (2020) · cites this paper as [58]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Rare coding variants in the phospholipase D3 gene confer risk for Alzheimer’s disease
Cruchaga, C., Karch, C. M., Jin, S. C., Benitez, B. A., Cai, Y., Guerreiro, R., Harari, O., Norton, J., Budde, J., Bertelsen, S., et al. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12825 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 65
- Ammar M. R. Humeau Y. Hanauer A. Nieswandt B. Bader M. F. Vitale N. (2013a). The Coffin-Lowry syndrome-associated protein RSK2 regulates neurite outgrowth through phosphorylation of phospholipase D1 (PLD1) and synthesis of phosphatidic acid. J. Neurosci. 33, 19470– 19479. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2283-13.2013 24336713 PMC6618760 · DOI
- Ammar M. R. Kassas N. Chasserot-Golaz S. Bader M. F. Vitale N. (2013b). Lipids in regulated exocytosis: what are they doing? Front. Endocrinol. 4: 125. 10.3389/fendo.2013.00125 24062727 PMC3775428 · DOI
- Ammar M. R. Kassas N. Bader M. F. Vitale N. (2014). Phosphatidic acid in neuronal development: a node for membrane and cytoskeleton rearrangements. Biochimie 107, 51– 57. 10.1016/j.biochi.2014.07.026 25111738 · DOI
- Ammar M. R. Thahouly T. Hanauer A. Stegner D. Nieswandt B. Vitale N. (2015). PLD1 participates in BDNF-induced signalling in cortical neurons. Sci. Rep. 5: 14778. 10.1038/srep14778 26437780 PMC4594037 · DOI
- Bader M. F. Vitale N. (2009). Phospholipase D in calcium-regulated exocytosis: lessons from chromaffin cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1791, 936– 941. 10.1016/j.bbalip.2009.02.016 19289180 · DOI
- Bruntz R. C. Taylor H. E. Lindsley C. W. Brown H. A. (2014). Phospholipase D2 mediates survival signaling through direct regulation of Akt in glioblastoma cells. J. Biol. Chem. 289, 600– 616. 10.1074/jbc.M113.532978 24257753 PMC3887188 · DOI
- Bullen H. E. Jia Y. Yamaryo-Botté Y. Bisio H. Zhang O. Jemelin N. K.. (2016). Phosphatidic acid-mediated signaling regulates microneme secretion in toxoplasma. Cell Host Microbe 19, 349– 360. 10.1016/j.chom.2016.02.006 26962945 · DOI
- Burkhardt U. Wojcik B. Zimmermann M. Klein J. (2014). Phospholipase D is a target for inhibition of astroglial proliferation by ethanol. Neuropharmacology 79, 1– 9. 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.11.002 24262632 · DOI
- Cai D. Zhong M. Wang R. Netzer W. J. Shields D. Zheng H.. (2006). Phospholipase D1 corrects impaired βAPP trafficking and neurite outgrowth in familial Alzheimer’s disease-linked presenilin-1 mutant neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 103, 1936– 1940. 10.1073/pnas.0510710103 16449385 PMC1413666 · DOI
- Chae Y. C. Kim J. H. Kim K. L. Kim H. W. Lee H. Y. Heo W. D.. (2008). Phospholipase D activity regulates integrin-mediated cell spreading and migration by inducing GTP-Rac translocation to the plasma membrane. Mol. Biol. Cell 19, 3111– 3123. 10.1091/mbc.E07-04-0337 18480413 PMC2441685 · DOI
- Chasserot-Golaz S. Coorssen J. R. Meunier F. A. Vitale N. (2010). Lipid dynamics in exocytosis. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 30, 1335– 1342. 10.1007/s10571-010-9577-x 21080057 PMC11498775 · DOI
- Corrotte M. Chasserot-Golaz S. Huang P. Du G. Ktistakis N. T. Frohman M. A.. (2006). Dynamics and function of phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid during phagocytosis. Traffic 7, 365– 377. 10.1111/j.1600-0854.2006.00389.x 16497229 · DOI
- Corrotte M. Nyguyen A. P. Harlay M. L. Vitale N. Bader M. F. Grant N. J. (2010). Ral isoforms are implicated in Fcγ R-mediated phagocytosis: activation of phospholipase D by RalA. J. Immunol. 185, 2942– 2950. 10.4049/jimmunol.0903138 20679536 · DOI
- Daniels R. H. Hall P. S. Bokoch G. M. (1998). Membrane targeting of p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK1) induces neurite outgrowth from PC12 cells. EMBO J. 17, 754– 764. 10.1093/emboj/17.3.754 9451000 PMC1170424 · DOI
- Disse J. Vitale N. Bader M. F. Gerke V. (2009). Phospholipase D1 is specifically required for regulated secretion of von Willebrand factor from endothelial cells. Blood 113, 973– 980. 10.1182/blood-2008-06-165282 18945966 · DOI
- Ehrhart F. Roozen S. Verbeek J. Koek G. Kok G. van Kranen H.. (2018). Review and gap analysis: molecular pathways leading to fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Mol. Psychiatry 24, 10– 17. 10.1038/s41380-018-0095-4 29892052 PMC6325721 · DOI
- Faugaret D. Chouinard F. C. Harbour D. El azreq M. A. Bourgoin S. G. (2011). An essential role for phospholipase D in the recruitment of vesicle amine transport protein-1 to membranes in human neutrophils. Biochem. Pharmacol. 81, 144– 156. 10.1016/j.bcp.2010.09.014 20858461 · DOI
- Foster D. A. (2009). Phosphatidic acid signaling to mTOR: signals for the survival of human cancer cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1791, 949– 949. 10.1016/j.bbalip.2009.02.009 19264150 PMC2759177 · DOI
- Ghossoub R. Lembo F. Rubio A. Gaillard C. B. Bouchet J. Vitale N.. (2014). Syntenin-ALIX exosome biogenesis and budding into multivesicular bodies are controlled by ARF6 and PLD2. Nat. Commun. 5: 3477. 10.1038/ncomms4477 24637612 · DOI
- Hayashi K. Ohshima T. Hashimoto M. Mikoshiba K. (2007). Pak1 regulates dendritic branching and spine formation. Dev. Neurobiol. 67, 655– 669. 10.1002/dneu.20363 17443815 · DOI
- Heilmann S. Drichel D. Clarimon J. Fernández V. Lacour A. Wagner H.. (2015). PLD3 in non-familial Alzheimer’s disease. Nature 520, E3– E5. 10.1038/nature14039 25832411 · DOI
- Holland P. Knævelsrud H. Søreng K. Mathai B. J. Lystad A. H. Pankiv S.. (2016). HS1BP3 negatively regulates autophagy by modulation of phosphatidic acid levels. Nat. Commun. 7: 13889. 10.1038/ncomms13889 28004827 PMC5412012 · DOI
- Honda A. Nogami M. Yokozeki T. Yamazaki M. Nakamura H. Watanabe H.. (1999). Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase α is a downstream effector of the small G protein ARF6 in membrane ruffle formation. Cell 99, 521– 532. 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81540-8 10589680 · DOI
- Humeau Y. Gambino F. Chelly J. Vitale N. (2009). X-linked mental retardation: focus on synaptic function and plasticity. J. Neurochem. 109, 1– 14. 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05881.x 19183273 · DOI
- Humeau Y. Vitale N. Chasserot-Golaz S. Dupont J. L. Du G. Frohman M. A.. (2001). A role for phospholipase D1 in neurotransmitter release. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 98, 15300– 15305. 10.1073/pnas.261358698 11752468 PMC65024 · DOI
- Ito S. Richert N. Pastan I. (1982). Phospholipids stimulate phosphorylation of vinculin by the tyrosine-specific protein kinase of Rous sarcoma virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 79, 4628– 4631. 10.1073/pnas.79.15.4628 6181509 PMC346728 · DOI
- Jang J.-H. Lee C. S. Hwang D. Ryu S. H. (2012). Understanding of the roles of phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid through their binding partners. Prog. Lipid Res. 51, 71– 81. 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.12.003 22212660 · DOI
- Jenkins G. M. Frohman M. A. (2005). Phospholipase D: a lipid centric review. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 62, 2305– 2316. 10.1007/s00018-005-5195-z 16143829 PMC11139095 · DOI
- Jin J.-K. Ahn B.-H. Na Y.-J. Kim J.-I. Kim Y.-S. Choi E.-K.. (2007). Phospholipase D1 is associated with amyloid precursor protein in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 28, 1015– 1027. 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.05.022 16797788 · DOI
- Johnson R. P. Craig S. W. (1995). The carboxy-terminal tail domain of vinculin contains a cryptic binding site for acidic phospholipids. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 210, 159– 164. 10.1006/bbrc.1995.1641 7741737 · DOI
- Jose Lopez-Andreo M. Gomez-Fernandez J. C. Corbalan-Garcia S. (2003). The simultaneous production of phosphatidic acid and diacylglycerol is essential for the translocation of protein kinase Cε to the plasma membrane in RBL-2H3 cells. Mol. Biol. Cell 14, 4885– 4895. 10.1091/mbc.e03-05-0295 12960426 PMC284792 · DOI
- Kassas N. Tanguy E. Thahouly T. Fouillen L. Heintz D. Chasserot-Golaz S.. (2017). Comparative characterization of phosphatidic acid sensors and their localization during frustrated phagocytosis. J. Biol. Chem. 292, 4266– 4279. 10.1074/jbc.m116.742346 28115519 PMC5354483 · DOI
- Klein J. (2005). Functions and pathophysiological roles of phospholipase D in thebrain. J. Neurochem. 94, 1473– 1487. 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03315.x 16042758 · DOI
- Kooijman E. E. Chupin V. de Kruijff B. Burger K. N. (2003). Modulation of membrane curvature by phosphatidic acid and lysophosphatidic acid. Traffic 4, 162– 174. 10.1034/j.1600-0854.2003.00086.x 12656989 · DOI
- Kurooka T. Yamamoto Y. Takai Y. Sakisaka T. (2011). Dual regulation of RA-RhoGAP activity by phosphatidic acid and Rap1 during neurite outgrowth. J. Biol. Chem. 286, 6832– 6843. 10.1074/jbc.m110.183772 21169361 PMC3057846 · DOI
- Lam A. D. Tryoen-Toth P. Tsai B. Vitale N. Stuenkel E. L. (2008). SNARE-catalyzed fusion events are regulated by Syntaxin1A-lipid interactions. Mol. Biol. Cell 19, 485– 497. 10.1091/mbc.e07-02-0148 18003982 PMC2230580 · DOI
- Lambert J. C. Grenier-Boley B. Bellenguez C. Pasquier F. Campion D. Dartigues J. F.. (2015). PLD3 and sporadic Alzheimer’s disease risk. Nature 520: E1. 10.1038/nature14036 25832408 · DOI
- Lopez C. I. Pelletán L. E. Suhaiman L. De Blas G. A. Vitale N. Mayorga L. S.. (2012). Diacylglycerol stimulates acrosomal exocytosis by feeding into a PKC- and PLD1-dependent positive loop that continuously supplies phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1821, 1186– 1199. 10.1016/j.bbalip.2012.05.001 22609963 · DOI
- Mima J. Wickner W. (2009). Complex lipid requirements for SNARE- and SNARE chaperone-dependent membrane fusion. J. Biol. Chem. 284, 27114– 27122. 10.1074/jbc.m109.010223 19654322 PMC2785640 · DOI
- Moine H. Vitale N. (2018). Of local translation control and lipid signaling in neurons. Adv. Biol. Regul. [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1016/j.jbior.2018.09.005 30262213 · DOI
- Nishikimi A. Fukuhara H. Su W. Hongu T. Takasuga S. Mihara H.. (2009). Sequential regulation of DOCK2 dynamics by two phospholipids during neutrophil chemotaxis. Science 324, 384– 387. 10.1126/science.1170179 19325080 PMC3761877 · DOI
- Oliveira T. G. Chan R. B. Tian H. Laredo M. Shui G. Staniszewski A.. (2010). Phospholipase d2 ablation ameliorates Alzheimer’s disease-linked synaptic dysfunction and cognitive deficits. J. Neurosci. 30, 16419– 16428. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3317-10.2010 21147981 PMC3004537 · DOI
- Park M. H. Ahn B. H. Hong Y. K. Min do S. (2009). Overexpression of phospholipase D enhances matrix metalloproteinase-2 expression and glioma cell invasion via protein kinase C and protein kinase A/NF-κB/Sp1-mediated signaling pathways. Carcinogenesis 30, 356– 365. 10.1093/carcin/bgn287 19126647 · DOI
- Pelletán L. E. Suhaiman L. Vaquer C. C. Bustos M. A. De Blas G. A. Vitale N.. (2015). ADP ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) promotes acrosomal exocytosis by modulating lipid turnover and Rab3A activation. J. Biol. Chem. 290, 9823– 9841. 10.1074/jbc.m114.629006 25713146 PMC4392280 · DOI
- Pokotylo I. Kravets V. Martinec J. Ruelland E. (2018). The phosphatidic acid paradox: too many actions for one molecule class? Lessons from plants. Prog. Lipid Res. 71, 43– 53. 10.1016/j.plipres.2018.05.003 29842906 · DOI
- Potocký M. Pleskot R. Pejchar P. Vitale N. Kost B. Zárský V. (2014). Live-cell imaging of phosphatidic acid dynamics in pollen tubes visualized by Spo20p-derive biosensor. New Phytol. 203, 483– 494. 10.1111/nph.12814 24750036 · DOI
- Raben D. M. Barber C. N. (2017). Phosphatidic acid and neurotransmission. Adv. Biol. Regul. 63, 15– 21. 10.1016/j.jbior.2016.09.004 27671966 PMC5292084 · DOI
- Roach A. N. Wang Z. Wu P. Zhang F. Chan R. B. Yonekubo Y.. (2012). Phosphatidic acid regulation of PIPKI is critical for actin cytoskeletal reorganization. J. Lipid Res. 53, 2598– 2609. 10.1194/jlr.m028597 22991193 PMC3494241 · DOI
- Sanematsu F. Nishikimi A. Watanabe M. Hongu T. Tanaka Y. Kanaho Y.. (2013). Phosphatidic acid-dependent recruitment and function of the Rac activator DOCK1 during dorsal ruffle formation. J. Biol. Chem. 288, 8092– 8100. 10.1074/jbc.m112.410423 23362269 PMC3605628 · DOI
- Schwarz K. Natarajan S. Kassas N. Vitale N. Schmitz F. (2011). The synaptic ribbon is a site of phosphatidic acid generation in ribbon synapses. J. Neurosci. 31, 15996– 16011. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2965-11.2011 22049442 PMC6623010 · DOI
- Stace C. L. Ktistakis N. T. (2006). Phosphatidic acid- and phosphatidylserine-binding proteins. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1761, 913– 926. 10.1016/j.bbalip.2006.03.006 16624617 · DOI
- Tabet R. Moutin E. Becker J. A. Heintz D. Fouillen L. Flatter E.. (2016a). Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP) controls diacylglycerol kinase activity in neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 113, E3619– E3628. 10.1073/pnas.1522631113 27233938 PMC4932937 · DOI
- Tabet R. Vitale N. Moine H. (2016b). Fragile X syndrome: are signaling lipids the missing Culprits? Biochimie 130, 188– 194. 10.1016/j.biochi.2016.09.002 27597551 · DOI
- Tanguy E. Carmon O. Wang Q. Jeandel L. Chasserot-Golaz S. Montero-Hadjadje M.. (2016). Lipids implicated in the journey of a secretory granule: from biogenesis to fusion. J. Neurochem. 137, 904– 912. 10.1111/jnc.13577 26877188 · DOI
- Tanguy E. Kassas N. Vitale N. (2018). Protein-phospholipid interaction motifs: a focus on phosphatidic acid. Biomolecules 8: E20. 10.3390/biom8020020 29690573 PMC6022864 · DOI
- van den Bout I. Divecha N. (2009). PIP5K-driven PtdIns(4,5)P2 synthesis: regulation and cellular functions. J. Cell Sci. 122, 3837– 3850. 10.1242/jcs.056127 19889969 · DOI
- van der Lee S. J. Holstege H. Wong T. H. Jakobsdottir J. Bis J. C. Chouraki V.. (2015). PLD3 variants in population studies. Nature 520, E2– E3. 10.1038/nature14038 25832410 PMC4544703 · DOI
- Vitale N. Caumont A. S. Chasserot-Golaz S. Du G. Wu S. Sciorra V. A.. (2001). Phospholipase D1: a key factor for the exocytotic machinery in neuroendocrine cells. EMBO J. 20, 2424– 2434. 10.1093/emboj/20.10.2424 11350931 PMC125248 · DOI
- Waselle L. Gerona R. R. Vitale N. Martin T. F. Bader M. F. Regazzi R. (2005). Role of phosphoinositide signaling in the control of insulin exocytosis. Mol. Endocrinol. 19, 3097– 3106. 10.1210/me.2004-0530 16081518 · DOI
- Wildburger N. C. Wood P. L. Gumin J. Lichti C. F. Emmett M. R. Lang F. F.. (2015). ESI-MS/MS and MALDI-IMS localization reveal alterations in phosphatidic acid, diacylglycerol, and DHA in glioma stem cell xenografts. J. Proteome Res. 14, 2511– 2519. 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00076 25880480 PMC4912016 · DOI
- Williams J. M. Pettitt T. R. Powell W. Grove J. Savage C. O. Wakelam M. J. (2007). Antineutrophil cytoplasm antibody-stimulated neutrophil adhesion depends on diacylglycerol kinase-catalyzed phosphatidic acid formation. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 18, 1112– 1120. 10.1681/asn.2006090973 17360949 · DOI
- Yang J. S. Gad H. Lee S. Y. Mironov A. Zhang L. Beznoussenko G. V.. (2008). A role for phosphatidic acid in COPI vesicle fission yields insights into Golgi maintenance. Nat. Cell Biol. 10, 1146– 1153. 10.1038/ncb1774 18776900 PMC2756218 · DOI
- Zeniou-Meyer M. Gambino F. Ammar M. R. Humeau Y. Vitale N. (2010). The Coffin-Lowry syndrome-associated protein RSK2 and neurosecretion. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 30, 1401– 1406. 10.1007/s10571-010-9578-9 21061166 PMC11706481 · DOI
- Zeniou-Meyer M. Liu Y. Béglé A. Olanich M. E. Hanauer A. Becherer U.. (2008). The Coffin-Lowry syndrome-associated protein RSK2 is implicated in calcium-regulated exocytosis through the regulation of PLD1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 105, 8434– 8439. 10.1073/pnas.0710676105 18550821 PMC2448854 · DOI
- Zeniou-Meyer M. Zabari N. Ashery U. Chasserot-Golaz S. Haeberlé A. M. Demais V.. (2007). Phospholipase D1 production of phosphatidic acid at the plasma membrane promotes exocytosis of large dense-core granules at a late stage. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 21746– 21757. 10.1074/jbc.m702968200 17540765 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate: diverse functions at the plasma membrane
Katan, M., & Cockcroft, S. (2020) · Essays in Biochemistry · doi:10.1042/ebc20200041 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Green technology for the industrial production of biofuels and bioproducts from microalgae: A review
Tang, D. Y. Y., Yew, G. Y., Koyande, A. K., Chew, K. W., Vo, D.-V. N., & Show, P. L. (2020) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-020-01052-3 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Adaptation of Lipid Profiling in Depression Disease and Treatment: A Critical Review
Pinto, B., Conde, T., Domingues, I., & Domingues, M. R. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23042032 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“These species are involved in phospholipid biosynthesis, membrane remodeling and secondary messenger signaling, in addition to regulating the immune response through macrophage recruitment [99].”
Background
- Authors
- Tanguy, E., Wang, Q., Moine, H., & Vitale, N.
- Affiliations
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Corresponding author
- Vitale, Nicolas
- Venue
- Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2019-01-23
- Volume
- 13
- Pages
- 2-2
- ISSN
- 1662-5102 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6351798
- OpenAlex
- W2914242215
- Cited by
- 130
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 9
- FWCI
- 1.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Lipid metabolism and biosynthesis
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sphingolipid Metabolism and Signaling
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Cancer, Lipids, and Metabolism
- Keywords
- phosphatidic acid, lipid second messengers, phospholipid synthesis, membrane trafficking, lipid remodeling, membrane topology, neuronal pathology, neurological disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review