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Immediate Effects of Smoking on Cardiorespiratory Responses During Dynamic Exercise: Arm Vs. Leg Ergometry
Open accessAbstract
PURPOSE: This study compared the immediate effects of smoking on cardiorespiratory responses to dynamic arm and leg exercises. METHODS: This randomized crossover study recruited 14 college students. Each participant underwent two sets of arm-cranking (AC) and leg-cycling (LC) exercise tests. The testing sequences of the control trial (participants refrained from smoking for 8 h before testing) and the experimental trial (participants smoked two cigarettes immediately before testing) were randomly chosen. We observed immediate changes in pulmonary function and heart rate variability after smoking and before the exercise test. The participants then underwent graded exercise tests of their arms and legs until reaching exhaustion. We compared the peak work achieved and time to exhaustion during the exercise tests with various cardiorespiratory indices [i.e., heart rate, oxygen consumption (VO2), minute ventilation (VE)]. The differences between the smoking and control trials were calculated using paired t-tests. For the exercise test periods, VO2, heart rate, and VE values were calculated at every 10% increment of the maximal effort time. The main effects of the time and trial, as well as their trial-by-time (4 × 10) interaction effects on the outcome measures, were investigated using repeated measure ANOVA with trend analysis. RESULTS: 5 min after smoking, the participants exhibited reduced forced vital capacities and forced expiratory volumes in the first second (P < 0.05), in addition to elevated resting heart rates (P < 0.001). The high-frequency, low-frequency, and the total power of the heart rate variability were also reduced (P < 0.05) at rest. For the exercise test periods, smoking reduced the time to exhaustion (P = 0.005) and the ventilatory threshold (P < 0.05) in the LC tests, whereas no significant effects were observed in the AC tests. A trend analysis revealed a significant trial-by-time interaction effect for heart rate, VO2, and VE during the graded exercise test (all P < 0.001). Lower VO2 and VE levels were exhibited in the exercise response of the smoking trial than in those of the control LC trials, whereas no discernable inter-trial difference was observed in the AC trials. Moreover, the differences in heart rate and VE response between the LC and AC exercises were significantly smaller after the participants smoked. CONCLUSION: This study verified that smoking significantly decreased performance and cardiorespiratory responses to leg exercises. However, the negative effects of smoking on arm exercise performance were not as pronounced.
Overview
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TL;DR
In a randomized crossover trial of 14 young male smokers, smoking two cigarettes immediately reduced pulmonary function and heart rate variability and impaired leg-cycling exercise performance more than arm-cranking performance. The negative effects on arm exercise were not as pronounced, with no significant smoking-related change in arm time to exhaustion.
Key findings
- Five minutes after smoking, FVC (P = 0.003), FEV1 (P = 0.033), and PEF (P = 0.013) decreased, and resting heart rate increased (P < 0.001).
- HRV decreased after smoking: R-R interval fell from 712.73 ± 93.06 to 622.29 ± 103.82 ms (P = 0.001), total power from 7.59 ± 0.72 to 6.79 ± 1.00 ln(ms²) (P = 0.014), LF from 7.03 ± 0.79 to 6.27 ± 1.08 ln(ms²) (P = 0.026), and HF from 5.25 ± 0.83 to 4.38 ± 1.33 ln(ms²) (P = 0.028).
- In leg cycling, smoking reduced peak power (P = 0.005) and time to exhaustion (P = 0.005); at the ventilatory threshold, VO2 (P = 0.002), VE (P < 0.001), heart rate (P = 0.038), and RER (P = 0.048) were lower in the smoking trial.
- In arm cranking, peak power was lower after smoking (P = 0.036), but time to exhaustion did not differ significantly (P = 0.098); no significant smoking effects were observed for arm VO2, VE, RER, or workload at the ventilatory threshold.
Methods
- Randomized crossover design: 16 moderately trained male smokers initially volunteered, 14 completed all sessions (mean age 20.4 ± 1.5 years; smoking duration 4.0 ± 2.0 years; 9.9 ± 2.9 cigarettes/day).
- Each participant completed four sessions: control trials after refraining from smoking for at least 8 h, and experimental trials after smoking two cigarettes (10 mg tar and 0.7 mg nicotine each) immediately before arm-cranking and leg-cycling graded exercise tests to exhaustion.
- Pulmonary function and HRV were measured before and after smoking; exercise outcomes included peak power, time to exhaustion, ventilatory threshold, and VO2, heart rate, and VE calculated at every 10% increment of maximal effort time. Paired t-tests and repeated-measures MANOVA with trend analysis were used.
Limitations
- Stated: the study investigated immediate smoking responses in moderately trained people during maximal arm and leg exercise and cannot determine the impact of smoking on arm aerobic performance in elite athletes.
- Evident: the final sample was small (n = 14), all male, young, and regular smokers, limiting generalizability to women, older adults, non-smokers, or other training levels.
- Evident: the authors note that muscle glycogen and lactate concentrations were not measured, so proposed mechanisms related to substrate use remain indirect.
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In the paper
“The intertrial difference in heart rate responses was also significant (F = 5.08, P = 0.005) (Figure 6A).”
§ Immediate Effects of Smoking on Cardiorespiratory Responses During Dynamic Exercise: Arm Vs. Leg Ergometry > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The MANOVA comparison of the VO2 data collected during the exercise tests resulted in a significant trial-by-time interaction [F(27, 351) = 21.62, P < 0.001]; the intertrial difference in VO2 was also significant [F(3, 39) = 58.46, P < 0.001] (Figure 4).”
§ Immediate Effects of Smoking on Cardiorespiratory Responses During Dynamic Exercise: Arm Vs. Leg Ergometry > Results
plainn = 14- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A trend analysis revealed a significant trial-by-time interaction effect for heart rate, VO2, and VE during the graded exercise test (all P < 0.001).”
§ Immediate Effects of Smoking on Cardiorespiratory Responses During Dynamic Exercise: Arm Vs. Leg Ergometry > Abstract
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the post-hoc analysis revealed significant differences between the control and smoking LC trials (regression line 4 vs. line 3 in Figure 4, mean difference = 0.15 ± 0.04, P = 0.027), between the control AC and LC trials (line 2 vs. line 4, mean difference = −0.46±0.04, P < 0.001), and between the smoking AC and LC trials (line 1 vs. line 3, mean difference = −0.33±0.03, P < 0.001).”
§ Immediate Effects of Smoking on Cardiorespiratory Responses During Dynamic Exercise: Arm Vs. Leg Ergometry > Results
plainn = 14- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the AC test, although the peak power was lower in the smoking trial than in the control trial (P = 0.036), there was no significant difference in time to exhaustion (P = 0.098).”
§ Immediate Effects of Smoking on Cardiorespiratory Responses During Dynamic Exercise: Arm Vs. Leg Ergometry > Results
plainn = 14- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(27, 351) = 21.62reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(27, 351) = 21.62, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(3, 39) = 58.46reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 39) = 58.46, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(9, 117) = 317.94reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(9, 117) = 317.94, p < .001”
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Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
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Citations
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Practices and Applications of Heart Rate Variability Monitoring in Endurance Athletes
Lundstrom, C. J., Foreman, N. A., & Biltz, G. R. (2022) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-1864-9726 · Cited by 138
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Unraveling the link between cardiorespiratory fitness and cancer: a state-of-the-art review
Kunutsor, S. K., Kaminsky, L. A., Lehoczki, A., & Laukkanen, J. A. (2024) · GeroScience · doi:10.1007/s11357-024-01222-z · Cited by 26
Tobacco Use and Its Health Effects among Professional Athletes in Qatar
Chaabane, Z., Murlasits, Z., Mahfoud, Z. R., & Goebel, R. T. (2016) · Canadian Respiratory Journal · doi:10.1155/2016/2684090 · Cited by 19
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The Effects of Cupping Therapy on Reducing Fatigue of Upper Extremity Muscles—A Pilot Study
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The Influence of Dry Cupping of Differing Intensities on Heart Rate Variability
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Cardio Respiratory Efficiency Parameter Between the Smokers and Non-Smokers: A Comparative Study
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Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, C.-L., Tang, J.-S., Li, P.-C., & Chou, P.-L.
- Affiliations
- I-Shou University (TW)
- Chung Hwa University of Medical Technology (TW)
- Kaohsiung Medical University (TW)
- Corresponding author
- Chen, Chien-Liang
- Venue
- Frontiers in Physiology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2015-12-10
- Volume
- 6
- Pages
- 376-376
- ISSN
- 1664-042X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4674552
- OpenAlex
- W2190520568
- Cited by
- 20
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 0.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Physiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Frontiers in Physiology (cc-by)
- Funders
- I-Shou University (ISU100-04-05)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Keywords
- cardiorespiratory responses, dynamic exercise, arm-cranking exercise, time to exhaustion, ventilatory threshold, oxygen consumption, heart rate variability, lung function, exercise performance
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