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Cited by 8Concrete and Cement Materials ResearchMagnesium Oxide Properties and ApplicationsGeotechnical Engineering and Soil Stabilization

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Physicochemical Properties of Alkali-Activated Ground-Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS)/High-Calcium Fly Ash (HCFA) Cementitious Composites

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Si, Yi, Wu, Hong, La, Runtao, Yang, Bo, Liu, Ting, Huang, Yong, Zhou, Ming, Li, Meng·2025·Buildings
DOI 10.3390/buildings15183265
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Abstract

This study advances alkali-activated cementitious materials (AACMs) by developing a ground-granulated blast furnace slag/high-calcium fly ash (GGBS/HCFA) composite that incorporates Tuokexun desert sand and by establishing a clear linkage between activator chemistry, mix proportions, curing regimen, and microstructural mechanisms. The innovation lies in valorizing industrial by-products and desert sand while systematically optimizing the aqueous glass modulus, alkali equivalent, HCFA dosage, and curing temperature/time, and coupling mechanical testing with XRD/FTIR/SEM to reveal performance–structure relationships under thermal and chemical attacks. The optimized binder (aqueous glass modulus 1.2, alkali equivalent 6%, and HCFA 20%) achieved 28-day compressive and flexural strengths of 52.8 MPa and 9.5 MPa, respectively; increasing HCFA beyond 20% reduced compressive strength, while flexural strength peaked at 20%. The preferred curing condition was 70 °C for 12 h. Characterization showed C-(A)-S-H as the dominant gel; elevated temperature led to its decomposition, acid exposure produced abundant CaSO4, and NaOH exposure formed N-A-S-H, each correlating with strength loss. Quantitatively, acid resistance was weaker than alkali resistance and both deteriorated with concentration: in H2SO4, 28-day mass loss rose from 1.22% to 4.16%, with compressive/flexural strength retention dropping to 75.2%, 71.2%, 63.4%, and 57.4% and 65.3%, 61.6%, 58.9%, and 49.5%, respectively; in NaOH (0.2/0.5/0.8/1.0 mol/L), 28-day mass change was +0.74%, +0.88%, −1.85%, and −2.06%, compressive strength declined in all cases (smallest drop 7.77% at 0.2 mol/L), and flexural strength increased at lower alkalinity, consistent with a pore-filling micro-densification effect before gel dissolution/cracking dominates. Practically, the recommended mix and curing window deliver structural-grade performance while improving high-temperature and acid/alkali resistance relative to non-optimized formulations, offering a scalable, lower-carbon route to utilize regional desert sand and industrial wastes in durable cementitious applications.

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Metadata

Authors
Si, Y., Wu, H., La, R., Yang, B., Liu, T., Huang, Y., Zhou, M., & Li, M.
Affiliations
  • Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (CN)
  • State Key Laboratory of Chemistry and Utilization of Carbon-Based Energy Resources, College of Chemistry, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830017, China
  • XPCC Surveying Designing Institute Group Co., Ltd., Urumqi 830002, China
  • Xinjiang Xinlu Shunjie Engineering Consulting Co., Ltd., Urumqi 830017, China
  • Xinjiang University (CN)
Corresponding author
  • Yang, Bo
  • Huang, Yong
ORCID
Venue
Buildings
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-09-10
Volume
15
Issue
18
Pages
3265
ISSN
2075-5309 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/buildings15183265
OpenAlex
W4414093917
Cited by
8
References
45
Citations by year
2026: 8
FWCI
2.56
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Buildings (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2023B03011-2, 2024TSYCCX0020)
  • Tianshan Talents Project in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2023B03011-2, 2024TSYCCX0020)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Concrete and Cement Materials Research
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Magnesium Oxide Properties and Applications
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Geotechnical Engineering and Soil Stabilization
Keywords
alkali-activated cementitious materials, ground granulated blast furnace slag, high-calcium fly ash, desert sand, alkali equivalent, curing temperature, compressive strength, flexural strength, acid resistance, alkali resistance, C-A-S-H gel, N-A-S-H gel, microstructure, industrial by-product valorization

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