Recent advances in astaxanthin micro/nanoencapsulation to improve its stability and functionality as a food ingredient
Open accessAbstract
Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by different organisms and microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, protists, and plants, and it is also accumulated in aquatic animals such as fish and crustaceans. Astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts obtained from these sources present an intense red color and a remarkable antioxidant activity, providing great potential to be employed as food ingredients with both technological and bioactive functions. However, their use is hindered by: their instability in the presence of high temperatures, acidic pH, oxygen or light; their low water solubility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability; their intense odor/flavor. The present paper reviews recent advances in the micro/nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts, developed to improve their stability, bioactivity and technological functionality for use as food ingredients. The use of diverse micro/nanoencapsulation techniques using wall materials of a different nature to improve water solubility and dispersibility in foods, masking undesirable odor and flavor, is firstly discussed, followed by a discussion of the importance of the encapsulation to retard astaxanthin release, protecting it from degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. The nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin to improve its bioaccessibility, bioavailability and bioactivity is further reviewed. Finally, the main limitations and future trends on the topic are discussed.
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Encapsulation efficiencies for microalgae-based bioactives such as astaxanthin, phycocyanin, and phenolic extracts vary between 40% and 90%, depending mainly on wall material and encapsulation technique.
“Encapsulation efficiencies (EE) for microalgae-based bioactives, such as astaxanthin, phycocyanin, and phenolic extracts, vary between 40% and 90%, depending mainly on the wall material used and the encapsulation technique (Vieira et al., 2020a; Martínez-Álvarez et al., 2020; Machado et al., 2022).”
From Microalgae biotechnology and its role in sustainable and healthy food design (2025) · cites this paper as Martínez-Álvarez et al., 2020
Section 2.1 says that wall materials affect astaxanthin encapsulation efficiency, and Section 2 discusses the choice of encapsulation technique. The paper does not establish a 40%–90% efficiency range or extend that claim to phycocyanin and phenolic extracts. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRelease of encapsulated hydrophilic pigments and antioxidants occurs over 4-24 h due to gradual diffusion under simulated gastrointestinal conditions.
“Thus, the release occurs over a period of 4–24 h, resulting from the gradual diffusion of hydrophilic pigments and antioxidants under simulated gastrointestinal conditions (Martínez-Álvarez et al., 2020; Panagiotakopoulos and Nasopoulou, 2024).”
From Microalgae biotechnology and its role in sustainable and healthy food design (2025) · cites this paper as Martínez-Álvarez et al., 2020
Section 2.4 discusses diffusion as one possible mechanism for encapsulated astaxanthin release, and Section 4.1 reports release during simulated gastrointestinal digestion. But the paper does not report a gradual 4–24 h release of hydrophilic pigments and antioxidants. It describes erosion as the main gastrointestinal release mechanism and reports a burst of astaxanthin release within the first 4 h in one example; page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
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References 139 · Cited by 148
- Authors
- Martínez-Álvarez, Ó., Calvo, M. M., & Gómez-Estaca, J.
- Affiliations
- Institute of Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (CSIC), José Antonio Novais 10, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Venue
- Marine Drugs
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-08-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 406
- ISSN
- 1660-3397 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7459837
- OpenAlex
- W3046480509
- Cited by
- 148
- References
- 139
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 1.29
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Marine Drugs (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Microencapsulation and Drying Processes
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Proteins in Food Systems
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Drug Solubulity and Delivery Systems
- Keywords
- astaxanthin, microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation, carotenoids, food ingredients, antioxidant activity, bioaccessibility, bioavailability, water solubility, controlled release, lipid extracts, wall materials, gastrointestinal degradation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Diffusion of Innovation, Drug Compounding, Drug Stability, Food Additives, Food Handling, Humans, Solubility, Molecular Structure, Xanthophylls, Nanotechnology, Nanoparticles
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