Toll-Like Receptors: Regulators of the Immune Response in the Human Gut
Open accessAbstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are powerful molecular regulators by which the immune system may “sense” the environment and protect the host from pathogens or endogenous threats. In mammalian cells, several TLRs were identified with a tissue and cell type-specific distribution. Understanding the functions of specific TLRs is crucial for the development and discovery of compounds useful to maintaining or re-establishing homeostasis in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Due to their relevance in regulating the inflammatory response in the GIT, we will focus here on TLR2, TLR4, and TLR5. In particular, we describe (a) the molecular pathways activated by the stimulation of these receptors with their known bacterial ligands; (b) the non-bacterial ligands known to interact directly with TLR2 and TLR4 and their soluble forms. The scope of this minireview is to highlight the importance of bacterial and non-bacterial compounds in affecting the gut immune functions via the activation of the TLRs.
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When the gut barrier is impaired, lipopolysaccharide originating from Gram-negative bacteria can enter the host circulation, where it is mainly recognized by toll-like receptors on the surface of immune cells.
“When the gut barrier is impaired, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) originating from Gram-negative bacteria can enter the host circulation, where it is mainly recognized by toll-like receptor (TLR)s on the surface of immune cells24.”
From Gut microbiota and cardiovascular disease. (2020) · cites this paper as [24]
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References 136 · Cited by 217
- Authors
- Hug, H., Mohajeri, M., & La Fata, G.
- Affiliations
- DSM Nutritional Products Ltd., R & D Human Nutrition and Health, P.O. Box 2676, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Zurich (CH)
- ORCID
- Mohajeri, M.
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2018-02-13
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 203
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5852779
- OpenAlex
- W2789527058
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 136
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 2.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Gastroenterology › Gastrointestinal motility and disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Keywords
- Toll-like receptors, intestinal immunity, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, bacterial ligands, gastrointestinal inflammation, intestinal homeostasis, innate immune response
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Bacteria, Humans, Inflammation, Ligands, Gastrointestinal Tract, Toll-Like Receptor 2, Toll-Like Receptor 4, Toll-Like Receptor 5
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