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Measurement of Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids in Water Systems: A Review of the Issues, Conventional, and Remote Sensing Techniques

Adjovu, Godson Ebenezer, Stephen, Haroon, James, David, Ahmad, Sajjad·2023·Remote Sensing
DOI 10.3390/rs15143534
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Abstract

This study provides a comprehensive review of the efforts utilized in the measurement of water quality parameters (WQPs) with a focus on total dissolved solids (TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS). The current method used in the measurement of TDS and TSS includes conventional field and gravimetric approaches. These methods are limited due to the associated cost and labor, and limited spatial coverages. Remote Sensing (RS) applications have, however, been used over the past few decades as an alternative to overcome these limitations. Although they also present underlying atmospheric interferences in images, radiometric and spectral resolution issues. Studies of these WQPs with RS, therefore, require the knowledge and utilization of the best mechanisms. The use of RS for retrieval of TDS, TSS, and their forms has been explored in many studies using images from airborne sensors onboard unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and satellite sensors such as those onboard the Landsat, Sentinel-2, Aqua, and Terra platforms. The images and their spectral properties serve as inputs for deep learning analysis and statistical, and machine learning models. Methods used to retrieve these WQP measurements are dependent on the optical properties of the inland water bodies. While TSS is an optically active parameter, TDS is optically inactive with a low signal–noise ratio. The detection of TDS in the visible, near-infrared, and infrared bands is due to some process that (usually) co-occurs with changes in the TDS that is affecting a WQP that is optically active. This study revealed significant improvements in incorporating RS and conventional approaches in estimating WQPs. The findings reveal that improved spatiotemporal resolution has the potential to effectively detect changes in the WQPs. For effective monitoring of TDS and TSS using RS, we recommend employing atmospheric correction mechanisms to reduce image atmospheric interference, exploration of the fusion of optical and microwave bands, high-resolution hyperspectral images, utilization of ML and deep learning models, calibration and validation using observed data measured from conventional methods. Further studies could focus on the development of new technology and sensors using UAVs and satellite images to produce real-time in situ monitoring of TDS and TSS. The findings presented in this review aid in consolidating understanding and advancement of TDS and TSS measurements in a single repository thereby offering stakeholders, researchers, decision-makers, and regulatory bodies a go-to information resource to enhance their monitoring efforts and mitigation of water quality impairments.

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  • Elevated TDS values may suggest the existence of various dissolved substances, including organic and inorganic matters and potential antibiotic remnants or their byproducts.

    “Elevated TDS values may suggest the existence of various dissolved substances, including organic and inorganic matters and potential antibiotic remnants or their byproducts68.”

    From Impact of untreated tannery wastewater in the evolution of multidrug-resistant bacteria in Bangladesh (2024) · cites this paper as [68]

    The Introduction describes TDS as dissolved constituents and says it can originate from natural sources, runoff, industrial waste, and water-treatment chemicals; §4.1.1 also discusses dissolved minerals as TDS constituents. These passages support the general point that elevated TDS reflects dissolved substances, but the paper does not connect elevated TDS to antibiotic remnants or their byproducts (searched: antibiotic, pharmaceutical contaminants, byproducts). (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Metadata

Authors
Adjovu, G. E., Stephen, H., James, D., & Ahmad, S.
Venue
Remote Sensing
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2023-07-13
Volume
15
Issue
14
Pages
3534
ISSN
2072-4292
DOI
10.3390/rs15143534
Cited by
292
References
1
Language
en
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)

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