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The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Stability or Disruption: The U.S. Marine Occupation and the Voodoo Trials in Haiti, 1926-30

Ulbrich, David J.·2019·Marine Corps History
DOI 10.35318/mch.2019050202
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  1. 2. For example, although Allan R. Millett devotes part of one chapter to the occupation of Haiti in his seminal survey Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps, rev. ed. (New York: Free Press, 1991), he does not deal with the influence of Voodoo. The same can be said of James H. McCrocklin's compilation Garde D'Haiti, 1915-1934: Twenty Years of Organization and Training by the United States Marines (Annapo-lis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1956); Hans Schmidt, Maverick Marine: General Smedley D. Butler and the Contradic-tions of American Military History (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1987); and Keith B. Bickel's sociologi-cal study Mars Learning: The Marine Corps' Development of Small Wars Doctrine, 1915-1940 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001). Mary A. Renda deals in detail with Voodooism, racism, and paternalism in her landmark book Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). However, Renda did not fully comprehend the operational contexts of the Marines in Haiti. Of the books on Marine Corps history used for this article, only Robert Debs Heinl and Nancy Gordon Heinl's Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492-1971 (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1978) examines Voodoo in Haiti during the occupation. The Heinls, however, were likely not privy to the primary source documentation referred to in this article. Between 1949 and 2015, only 48 articles focused on the Marine occupation of Haiti out of 355 articles published in scholarly journals on Haiti, the Caribbean, Postcoloni-alism, or Latin American Studies. The vast majority of the remaining articles concentrated on the revolu-tionary period of 1793-1804. See Raphael Dalleo, American Imperialism's Undead: The Occupation of Haiti and the Rise of Caribbean Anticolonialism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2016), 10-13.
  2. 4. Much of the material in this section on Haitian history is drawn from Philippe Girard, Haiti: The Tumul-tuous History-From Pearl of the Caribbean to Broken Nation (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2010), 1-80
  3. 6. Anthony B. Pinn, Varieties of African American Religious Experience: Toward a Comparative Black Theology, 20th anniv. ed. (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2017), 3-10
  4. 8. Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 2004), as cited in Girard, Haiti, 40.
  5. 21. Girard, Haiti, 85-88; Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 85-90; and Alan McPherson, A Short History of U.S. In-terventions in Latin America and the Caribbean (Malden, MA: John Wiley and Sons, 2016), 78-81, 102-5.
  6. 32. For an example of disturbing white supremacist biases regarding Haiti, see Stuart Omer Landry, The Cult of Equality: A Study of the Race Problem, 2d ed. (New Orleans, LA: Pelican, 1945), 108-15, 136. For a more critical analysis of race, American foreign policy, and Haiti, see Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. For-eign Policy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 58-68, 99-103, 126-31; and Pamphile, Contrary Destines, 32-4. For the cultural con-texts of racial theories and racism in the early twentieth century, see Wintermute and Ulbrich, Race and Gender in Modern Western Warfare, 3-12, 45-9, 80-9; and C. Loring Brace, "Race" is a Four-Lettered Word: The Genesis of the Concept (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 5-42.
  7. 34. See Heather Pace Marshall, "Crucible of Colonial Service: The Warrior Brotherhood and the Mythos of the Modern Marine Corps, 1898-1934" (master's thesis, University of Hawaii, 2003); and Schmidt, Occupation of Haiti, 142-44.
  8. 35. Cited in Robert L. Scheina, Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900-2001, vol. 2 (Dulles, VA: Brassey's, 2003), 47. For similar quotes by Butler and other Marines, see Schmidt, Maverick Marine, 75-76, 82-84.
  9. 69. Review of The White King of La Gonave, Marine Corps Gazette 15, no. 5 (May 1931): 15
  10. 71. The word Haitianization is used in proper historical context of the early 1930s, as seen in "Agreement between the United States and Haiti for Haitianization of the Treaty Services, Signed August 5, 1931," in Joseph V. Fuller, ed., Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1931, vol. 2 (Wash-ington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1946), 403-6, on Office of the Historian, Department of State (website), accessed 20 December 2019.

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Metadata

Authors
Ulbrich, D. J.
Venue
Marine Corps History
Publisher
Marine Corps University Press
Published
2019-11-30
Volume
5
Issue
2
Pages
21-38
ISSN
  • 2381-375X
  • 2381-3768
DOI
10.35318/mch.2019050202
Cited by
1
References
15

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CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Stability or Disruption: The U.S. Marine Occupation and the Voodoo Trials in Haiti, 1926-30. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.35318/mch.2019050202
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Ulbrich, D. J. (2019). Stability or Disruption: The U.S. Marine Occupation and the Voodoo Trials in Haiti, 1926-30. Marine Corps History. https://doi.org/10.35318/mch.2019050202

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