The DOI matches its Crossref record; 13 of the 13 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 21 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools
Open accessAbstract
This article examines the influence of the No Child Left Behind Act on the decision making of rural principals and teachers about curriculum and instruction as well as the possible long-term effects on rural education. Data were gathered from 101 rural elementary school principals in Missouri and 76 rural elementary school teachers in Maine. Missouri principals were concerned about losing their autonomy and abilities to be instructional leaders. Maine teachers reported that NCLB benefited some groups of students more than others and that it has a negative effect on student motivation. There were significant changes in instructional time for some subjects and non-instructional time for recess and kindergarten nap time. The most important influence on principals’ educational vision for the future and the need for professional development was meeting AYP and raising test scores.
Overview
CoChat Summary
TL;DR
This article reports two studies on how No Child Left Behind affected curriculum and instruction in rural Missouri elementary schools and rural Maine elementary classrooms. It finds increased reading time, reduced science/recess/nap time, and strong pressure on principals and teachers to meet AYP and raise test scores.
Key findings
- Missouri principals reported significant increases in daily reading instruction after NCLB: K–3 rose from 80.67 to 90.83 minutes, and grades 4–6 rose from 68.01 to 77.56 minutes. Science instruction in grades 4–6 significantly decreased from 50.23 to 43.26 minutes per day.
- Non-instructional time declined significantly: recess fell from 37.04 to 32.26 minutes in K–2, 32.47 to 28.31 minutes in grades 3–4, and 27.63 to 24.94 minutes in grades 5–6; kindergarten nap time fell from 29.33 to 26.73 minutes.
- Professional development was driven by AYP and test-score goals for 72% of responding rural principals; reading was the primary PD emphasis by a mean of 73% across 2002–2006, while social studies was emphasized by only a mean of 5.20% of schools.
- Among Maine teachers, 64% said NCLB benefited some groups of students more than others, 58% reported a negative effect on student motivation, and 50% reported NCLB had a large effect and was “changing the entire curriculum.” Missouri principals’ top influence on educational vision was “Meeting AYP and raising test scores” (82%), and 42% either worried about keeping their jobs or worried a lot that meeting requirements seemed impossible.
Methods
- Two studies were combined: a May 2006 survey of all 571 Missouri elementary public school principals, with 165 returned surveys (29% return rate) and 101 rural respondents included; and spring 2007 open-ended interviews with 76 certified elementary school teachers in rural Maine, drawn as a convenience sample from 14 of 16 rural counties.
- Missouri principals responded to 105 survey items covering demographics, student achievement, time allocations, curricular/instructional/professional-development decisions, decision-making processes, and special education. Maine teachers responded to 8 demographic items and 8 open-ended questions about curriculum, instruction, student benefits, motivation, and opinions of NCLB.
- Maine teacher responses were sorted into emergent categories; Missouri data were analyzed with descriptive frequencies and percents, and paired-samples t-tests were used for time allocations, with significance at the .05 alpha level and Cohen’s d for effect size.
Limitations
- Paper-stated: the Missouri time data are self-reported by administrators and likely represent allocated time rather than actual time spent on instruction or student engagement; the authors also state that principal results might have differed if the survey had been sent in spring 2008.
- Paper-stated: the Maine teacher sample was a convenience sample, and the authors say they are not trying to generalize across a wide population; they also note uncertainty about whether Maine teachers’ references to music/theatre matched the specialist-taught art/music instruction Missouri principals reported.
- Evident from the text: the two studies used different states, samples, instruments, and time points, with no comparison group and a 29% survey return rate, so cross-state comparisons are presented as emerging patterns rather than causal or nationally representative findings.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
121 Own result · 15 Own interpretation · 11 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 5 No full text of the sources · 3 Own method · 1 Not checked yet
A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant changes reported by Missouri principals in time spent on art, music, and physical education instruction.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Curricular and Instructional Decisions and What Influenced Them Instructional time.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In mathematics, 82% reported textbook use; 65% reported using social studies textbooks; 61% used reading basals; and 57% reported using science basal textbooks.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Resources available in rural schools
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The effect size was d=0.4,or small to medium.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Curricular and Instructional Decisions and What Influenced Them Instructional time.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rural principals indicated that 51% of their schools had implemented benchmarking primarily as a district decision.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Non-instructional time.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Principals reported that curriculum rotation had been altered as a result of NCLB in 60% of the reported schools.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Non-instructional time.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
92 more claims
Create a free account to see all 162 claims and every source verdict.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 41
- The quote only partly states this claim. 4
- Probably not a substantial claim. 35
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(89) = 3.63reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(89)=3.63,p < .001”
- Consistentt(87) = 3.73reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(87)=3.73,p < .001”
- Consistentt(85) = 3.61reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001
“t(85)=3.61,p < .01”
- Consistentt(74) = 2.82reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006
“t(74)= 2.82, p < .01”
- Consistentt(92) = 4.9reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(92) =4.90, p < .001”
2 more recomputed tests
Create a free account to see every test the Stats check recomputed.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Fiftysix teachers (75%) received their teacher preparation from universities in Maine and 20 had degrees from other colleges and universities.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Participants
Reported 75 · recomputed 73.684211
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“50% reported large effects while 37% reported small effects due to NCLB and 22% reported no effects.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Non-instructional time.
Reported 100 · recomputed 109
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Curricular and Instructional Decisions and What Influenced Them Instructional time.
“prior to NCLB (M=80.67 minutes per day, s=20.31)”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Spring 2009 -27
“| Teaching Reading (K-3) | 3.63*** | 80.67 | 21.31 | 90.83 | 24.15 | 89 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Curricular and Instructional Changes
“science and social studies did not receive significant cuts”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Curricular and Instructional Decisions and What Influenced Them Instructional time.
“There was a significant decrease in science in grades 4-6 from 50.23 minutes (s=21.3)prior to NCLB and 43.26 minutes (s=10.4)after NCLB, t(85)=3.61,p<.01.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Non-instructional time.
“Rural principals indicated that 51% of their schools had implemented benchmarking primarily as a district decision.”
§ Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools > Curricular and Instructional Changes
“68% of rural schools have implemented benchmarking where teachers are told by the district what they should be teaching on any particular day.”
Citations
Cites
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Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.).
Lachenbruch, P. A., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290095 · Cited by 37,420
Arehart, K. H., Yoshinaga‐Itano, C., Thomson, V., Gabbard, S. A., & Brown, A. S. (1998) · American Journal of Audiology · doi:10.1044/1059-0889(1998/019 · Cited by 600
Datnow, A., & Castellano, M. (2000) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312037003775 · Cited by 321
(2016) · Cited by 154
Gauging Growth: How to Judge No Child Left Behind?
Fuller, B., Wright, J., Gesicki, K., & Kang, E. (2007) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x07306556 · Cited by 124
(2007) · Cited by 107
Residential Mobility Among the Rural Poor1
Fitchen, J. M. (1994) · Rural Sociology · doi:10.1111/j.1549-0831.1994.tb00540.x · Cited by 82
Elementary School Children: Many Change Schools Frequently, Harming Their Education
US Government Accountability Office (1994) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e534722006-001 · Cited by 58
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- Burrington, D. (2004 May). Good-bye to nap time: Spurred by NCLB, elementary schools get serious. American School Board Journal, 6.
- Freed, A., Acheson, F., & Berger, R. (2008, January). Maine Teacher Reflections on No Child Left Behind. Paper presented at the Association for Science Teacher Education International Conference, St Louis, MO.
- National Conference of State Legislatures (2005). Delivering the promise: State recommendations for improving No Child Left Behind. Washington, D.C.
Cited by
Common Challenges Faced By Rural Principals: A Review of the Literature
Preston, J. P., Jakubiec, B. A. E., & Kooymans, R. (2018) · The rural educator · doi:10.35608/ruraled.v35i1.355 · Cited by 171
Storylines About Rural Teachers in the United States: A Narrative Analysis of the Literature
Burton, M., Brown, K. D., & Johnson, A. S. (2013) · Journal of Research in Rural Education · doi:10.18113/p8jrre2812 · Cited by 74
Watson, A., Dumuid, D., Maher, C. A., & Olds, T. (2021) · Journal of sport and health science/Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2020.12.004 · Cited by 68
Ross, D. J., & Cozzens, J. A. (2016) · Journal of Education and Training Studies · doi:10.11114/jets.v4i9.1562 · Cited by 48
Wronowski, M. L., & Urick, A. (2019) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/0895904819843598 · Cited by 42
Metadata
- Authors
- Powell, D., Higgins, H. J., Aram, R., & Freed, A.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina Wilmington (US)
- Missouri State University (US)
- University of Maine at Farmington (US)
- Venue
- The Rural Educator
- Published
- 2018-11-28
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 0273-446X (ISSN-L)
- 2643-9662
- OpenAlex
- W1497057410
- Cited by
- 56
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2024: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 6
- FWCI
- 17.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- The rural educator (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- BearWorks (Missouri State University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education in Rural Contexts
- Social Sciences › Education › Indigenous and Place-Based Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Improvement
- Keywords
- No Child Left Behind Act, rural schools, curriculum decision-making, instructional decision-making, school principals, teachers, educational autonomy, instructional leadership, student motivation, instructional time, recess, professional development, accountability, test scores, rural education policy
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- Powell, D., Higgins, H. J., Aram, R., & Freed, A. (2018). Impact of No Child Left Behind on Curriculum and Instruction in Rural Schools. The Rural Educator. https://doi.org/10.35608/ruraled.v31i1.439
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Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
