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CONFLICTED LOYALTIES: REDEFINING PATRIOTISM IN RUSSIAN WAR CINEMA
Open accessAbstract
DOWNLOAD DOI: 10.38173/RST.2025.30.2.10:137-146 ABSTRACT: THIS PAPER EXPLORES THE PORTRAYAL OF PATRIOTISM IN TWO WAR DRAMAS, “GU-GA” (1989) AND “SHTRAFBAT” (2004), BOTH OF WHICH EXAMINE THE EXPERIENCES OF SOLDIERS IN PENAL BATTALIONS DURING WORLD WAR II. SET AGAINST THE BACKDROP OF THE SOVIET UNION’S REPRESSIVE WARTIME DISCIPLINE AND THE LASTING CULTURAL IMPACT OF THE “GREAT PATRIOTIC […]
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TL;DR
This article compares two Russian films about World War II penal battalions, *Gu-ga* (V. Novak, 1989) and the TV series *Shtrafbat* (N. Dostal`, 2004), arguing that both replace Soviet heroic patriotism with a fragmented, personal loyalty to the homeland distinct from loyalty to the state. It reads the shift from *Gu-ga*'s survival-driven, de-heroicized portrayal to *Shtrafbat*'s more explicit critique of state-manipulated patriotism as evidence of Russian cinema's move from mythologizing canon to myth critique.
Key findings
- In *Gu-ga*, patriotism is not glorified but shown as coerced: penal battalion soldiers (shtrafniki) are motivated by survival and personal redemption rather than national pride, and "neither category" of soldier — undisciplined troops or criminals — treats involvement as an act of national pride.
- *Shtrafbat* presents a more psychologically fragmented patriotism, distinguishing state-imposed patriotism (obedience under the slogan "redemption through blood") from loyalty to the motherland; a political prisoner who joins to protect his homeland concludes, "Homeland is calling. It is my homeland, after all."
- Both films locate authentic loyalty in horizontal relationships among soldiers rather than vertical state structures — e.g., the shtrafniki's respect for commander Tverdokhlebov and their critical questioning of Major Kharchenko's arrest of him.
- The article argues the two films mark stages in Russian cultural memory: *Gu-ga* reflects late-Soviet glasnost-era confrontation with taboo history, while *Shtrafbat* exemplifies a post-Soviet critique of patriotism manipulated for political gain.
Methods
- Qualitative comparative film analysis of two works: *Gu-ga* (1989), selected from three 1989 penal-battalion films for its war-drama genre and revisionist tone, and the 2004 TV series *Shtrafbat*, described as the benchmark of Russian WWII historical drama for veracity and demystification.
- Analysis is interpretive and thematic, combining close reading of plot, dialogue and character arcs with a "visual and cinematic review" of cinematography, colour palette, framing, close-ups and editing pace in each film.
- Contextual framing draws on secondary scholarship on Soviet/post-Soviet war cinema, the "Great Patriotic War" cult, Stalin's Order No. 227 (July 28, 1942), penal battalions (shtrafbats) and blocking units (zagradotriady).
Limitations
- The paper states no limitations. Evident from the text: the analysis rests on only two films, one of which (*Gu-ga*) is chosen from three 1989 releases, so the claimed trajectory of Russian war cinema is supported by a very small sample.
- No audience reception, box-office, archival or production data are used; the argument depends entirely on the author's interpretive reading of scenes and dialogue.
- The comparison is asymmetric in format — a feature film versus a multi-episode TV series — a difference the paper does not address as a methodological issue.
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Claims the paper makes
38 Own interpretation · 4 Sources not found
In the paper
“Moreover, Gu-Ga and Shtrafbat represent a shift in the patriotic depiction of war dramas, reflecting preoccupations with veracity and revisionism rather than commemoration or reiteration of the Soviet war myths [2].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2] [2] A.P. Petrova, "Spetsifika reprezentatsii voennogo proshlogo v rossijskom kommemorativnom i revizionistkom kinematografe XXI veka" ["Specificity of representation of the military past in the Russian commorative and revisionist cinema of the XXI century"], Concept: Philosophy, Religion, Culture. Vol. 4. No 2 (14), 2020, p.160.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Patriotism in Shtrafbat is more psychologically fragmented than in Gu-ga.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Some of the soldiers, especially the political prisoners, do display a form of patriotism, though it is born from personal redemption or camaraderie rather than ideological loyalty.”
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In the paper
“Disillusioned with the Stalinist regime, these two officers chose to betray the state, not their motherland, even if their first mission was to execute those who refused Vlasov's offer.”
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In the paper
“In both works, the soldiers' relationships with each other, their quest for redemption, and their desire for survival ultimately become more important than their allegiance to the state.”
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In the paper
“Dostal`' war drama depicts soldiers' loyalty emerging from horizontal relationships, not vertical state structures.”
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In the paper
“Nevertheless, the last scene of the film is the key to restating Borya's spontaneity and disobedience toward the coercive and unjust military system.”
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In the paper
“In Novak's directorial view, patriotism manifests as endurance against the brutal military disciplinary system mirroring the Stalinist violent state.”
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In the paper
“Furthermore, Shtrafbat depicts patriotism as emerging from shared suffering rather than official ideology, deepening the difference between state-imposed and desirable patriotism and individually shaped one.”
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In the paper
“Neither of them, not even the negative characters – Sergeant Kravets and the officer of the blocking unit – are driven by patriotic zeal. They both seem animated by contempt and hatred toward the penal unit soldiers (shtrafniki) and humanity in general.”
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For soldiers in a penal battalion, patriotism is often a compulsion rather than a true, heartfelt sentiment.”
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Tiraspolsky's possible redemption (as he fights for his survival) could be interpreted as a kind of patriotic act, though it is deeply personal and individual rather than driven by nationalistic fervour.”
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In the paper
“Borya's character arc does not follow the typical Socialist Realism character development, as pointed out by Katerina Clark: from spontaneity to consciousness [3].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [3] [3] Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, third edition. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000, p. 181-182.
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In the paper
“Nikolay Dostal`'s TV series Penal Battalion has become the benchmark of Russian historical drama about World War II concerning veracity and demystification.”
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In the paper
“Politically, the war narrative legitimizes the post-Soviet Russian state identity, reinforces historical continuity, and serves as a key propaganda instrument [1].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1] [1] O.Yu. Malinova, Aktual'noe proshloe: Simvolicheskaia politika vlastvuiushchei elity i dilemmy rossiiskoi identichnosti [Current past: The symbolic policy of the ruling elite and the dilemmas of Russian identity]. Moscow: Politicheskaia entsiklopediia, 2015, p. 90.
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In the paper
“It shows soldiers' patriotism more explicitly than in Gu-ga, from a critical view - it is complex and sometimes conflicted.”
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In the paper
“Their sexualized love story serves as a form of emotional escape from the brutality of war, rendered on screen by flashbacks every time Borya Tiraspolsky faces imminent extreme danger.”
- Also stated in: § Gu-Ga · hedged
“These moments of escaping war's harsh and cruel reality suggest that personal connections and survival matter more than abstract notions of patriotism or national duty.”
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- Also stated in: § Gu-Ga · hedged
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In the paper
“Still, Shtrafbat represents a more psychologically introspective approach compared to the more straightforward heroic narrative of Gu-ga.”
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In the paper
“The film portrays how the soldiers' sense of duty to their homeland is shaped by their status as criminals or expendable soldiers used mercilessly by a system as cannon fodder.”
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In the paper
“In both Gu-ga and Shtrafbat, patriotism is portrayed as a complex, often contradictory factor. On the one hand, the state-imposed narrative of patriotism demands blind obedience with no regard for human life and the cost of war; on the other, characters display a delicate sense of allegiance to their homeland, disjoined with the state.”
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In the paper
“The 2004 TV series installs a fast-paced, almost visceral editing during the battle scenes, rendering the chaotic and brutal nature of soldiers' lives. The quick cuts and fragmented pacing create a sense of urgency and danger, stressing the soldiers' constant fear of death and the dehumanizing nature of their mission.”
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In the paper
“Both films deconstruct simplistic patriotic narratives, touching upon previously taboo topics and presenting war trauma and societal trauma of a violent state. Instead, patriotism is revealed on screen as a complex and conflicted human experience where loyalty is constantly negotiated, challenged, and redefined through personal and collective struggle.”
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In the paper
“There is a similar focus on harsh war realities in Shtrafbat, employing colour grading to produce the effect of older coloured Soviet films. This has a double effect on the viewer: it creates a sense of temporal distance between the viewer and the fictional events set during the war while also imparting a documentary-like quality that enhances the feeling of authenticity [7].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] [7] K. Shergova, A. Muradov, "Khudozhestvennye osobennosti mnogoseriynykh filmov o VOV" ["Artistic features of Russian TV serials about the Great Patriotic War"] in Journal of Flm Arts and Film Studies tom 11, No. 2 (40), June 2019, p. 147, 149.
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In the paper
“The characters of Gu-ga and Shtrafbat show that even under harsh circumstances, moral choices transcend official propaganda. The soldiers' patriotism is a personal version of their love for the motherland, not an abstract concept imposed from above by the state authorities.”
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In the paper
“It thus challenges the state's official patriotic narrative by presenting a demystified, humanized and fragmented view of patriotism.”
- Also stated in: § Comparative Viewpoints · plain
“It also moves the focus from abstract party ideals to personal sacrifice and relationships.”
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In the paper
“Both Gu-ga and Shtrafbat use visual, sound and editing techniques to effectively convey the complex themes of patriotism, personal struggle, and psychological fragmentation. Through deliberate cinematography and thoughtful editing, the films criticize the Soviet narrative of unquestioning loyalty and sacrifice while offering nuanced portrayals of individual characters grappling with their sense of”
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In the paper
“A central idea from both films is that humanity and personal sacrifice often outweigh the more abstract notions of patriotism.”
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In the paper
“Blind patriotism demanded by the authorities is a form of manipulation: under the pretext of a noble cause, penal battalions are used as disposable pawns.”
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In the paper
“Both films represent significant stages in the evolution of Russian historical memory of World War II, detaching from state-imposed heroism and loyalty to a subtle, individualized rendering of the motherland loyalty.”
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In the paper
“In Shtrafbat, patriotism is more explicitly questioned and used as a tool of control, illustrating how the Soviet state exploited the ideal of patriotism to manipulate and sacrifice its soldiers.”
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In the paper
“Both films use penal battalions as a lens to examine patriotism during World War II.”
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In the paper
“Together, these films convey the Russian cinema shifts from Soviet mythologizing canon to its myths' critique, thus highlighting personal fragmented and conflicted patriotism.”
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In the paper
“Novak and Dostal`'s films reflect the shift in Russian cultural memory: from standardized heroic narratives to individualized ones.”
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In the paper
“In the criminals' case, this redemption is not linked to their duty to the state but to their homeland loyalty. Moreover, redemption stems from mutual solidarity rather than abstract national ideology.”
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In the paper
“Both films convey complex themes through specific film techniques: visual composition and editing transmit the protagonists' psychological fragmentation; the war's dehumanizing effects and the distorted nature of patriotism.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In Gu-ga, patriotism is almost a background theme, where the soldiers' struggles are defined more by their humanity and survival instincts than any sense of national duty.”
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In the paper
“In Gu-ga, close-ups of Borya Tiraspolsky's face in the utmost moments of danger and violence are ways to introduce flashbacks to his love affair with Tamara.”
- Also stated in: § Visual and Cinematic Review · plain
“The bleak, muted colour palette of the daily war reality contrasts with the bright, colourful scenes of the protagonist's instruction period in a Soviet Asian republic.”
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In the paper
“The close-up of the blessed soldiers and Father Mikhail renders the intimacy and trust between the two, whereas the tilt reveals the upward faith in vertical power – God - but not vertical state structure. The horizontal relationships contributed thus to finding God and faith at war or settling a new vertical relationship, forming symbolically the shape of the cross.”
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In the paper
“Tverdokhlebov's first arrest by the special disciplinary unit after escaping from German imprisonment marks the first disconnection from idealized patriotism. It serves as a turning point in the protagonist's beliefs in a just and protective state, shaping his personalized patriotism.”
- Also stated in: § Shtrafbat · plain
“The traumatic experience of being treated as a traitor twice despite fighting for his motherland reinforces Tverdokhlebov's complex issue of patriotism.”
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In the paper
“Both directors explore how patriotism can be distorted or become secondary to more human, existential concerns in the face of war's brutal reality.”
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The editing style of Gu-ga is deliberately slow, reflecting the disorienting experience of shtrafniki.”
- Also stated in: § Visual and Cinematic Review · plain
“The nonlinear editing shows the characters' psychological fragmentation and disillusionment, driven by survival rather than any sense of patriotic duty.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Visual and Cinematic Review · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both films highlight the tragic nature of patriotism in the context of penal battalions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Penal battalions were overseen by NKVD officers and established alongside blocking units tasked with preventing retreats by force.
“These units, overseen by NKVD officers (osobisty), were established alongside blocking units (zagradotriady) tasked with preventing retreats by force.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The full text of Order No. 227 remained unpublished until 1988 during Gorbachev's glasnost campaign, and few writings about penal battalions were available before then.
“Since the full text of Order No. 227 remained unpublished until 1988 during Gorbachev's glasnost` campaign (as it contradicted the carefully crafted narrative of Soviet heroism), few writings about penal battalions were available.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The war narrative transcends historical documentation, functioning as a crucial mechanism for constructing and maintaining national identity, military pride, and collective memory.
“The war narrative transcends historical documentation, functioning as a crucial mechanism for constructing and maintaining national identity, military pride, and collective memory.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Olga GRĂDINARU1”
“Olga GRĂDIINARU, "Conflicted Loyalties: Redefining Patriotism in Russian War Cinema"”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“Shtrafbat represents a more psychologically introspective approach compared to the more straightforward heroic narrative of Gu-ga.”
“This lack of heroic gestures and focus on everyday life in the trenches challenges the glorification of Soviet patriotism, instilling a new type of authentic personal and fragmented patriotism developed and carried away to the last breath.”
Citations
Cites
The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- [2][2] A.P. Petrova, "Spetsifika reprezentatsii voennogo proshlogo v rossijskom kommemorativnom i revizionistkom kinematografe XXI veka" ["Specificity of representation of the military past in the Russian commorative and revisionist cinema of the XXI century"], Concept: Philosophy, Religion, Culture. Vol. 4. No 2 (14), 2020, p.160.
- [3][3] Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, third edition. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000, p. 181-182.
- [6][6] Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, third edition. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000, p. 114-124.
- [7][7] K. Shergova, A. Muradov, "Khudozhestvennye osobennosti mnogoseriynykh filmov o VOV" ["Artistic features of Russian TV serials about the Great Patriotic War"] in Journal of Flm Arts and Film Studies tom 11, No. 2 (40), June 2019, p. 147, 149.
Metadata
- Authors
- GRĂDINARU, O.
- Corresponding author
- GRĂDINARU, Olga
- ORCID
- GRĂDINARU, Olga
- Venue
- Research and Science Today
- Publisher
- Research and Science Today
- Published
- 2025-11-05
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 137-146
- ISSN
- 2247-4455 (ISSN-L)
- 2285-9632
- OpenAlex
- W7133866793
- Semantic Scholar
- f089cedd6bcce7dc5683db8c5e79d0ff0237475b
- Cited by
- 0
- References
- 0
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc
- Locations
- Research and Science Today (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Visual Arts and Performing Arts › Cinema History and Criticism
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Soviet and Russian History
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › World Wars: History, Literature, and Impact
- Keywords
- patriotism, World War II, Great Patriotic War, soldiers' experiences
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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