Sex and race differences in caloric intake during sleep restriction in healthy adults
Open accessAbstract
Background Evidence indicates that men and African Americans may be more susceptible to weight gain resulting from sleep loss than women and whites, respectively. Increased daily caloric intake is a major behavioral mechanism that underlies the relation between sleep loss and weight gain.Objective We sought to assess sex and race differences in caloric intake, macronutrient intake, and meal timing during sleep restriction.Design Forty-four healthy adults aged 21-50 y (mean ± SD: 32.7 ± 8.7 y; n = 21 women, n = 16 whites) completed an in-laboratory protocol that included 2 consecutive baseline nights [10 or 12 h time in bed (TIB)/night; 2200-0800 or 2200-1000] followed by 5 consecutive sleep-restriction nights (4 h TIB/night; 0400-0800). Caloric intake and meal-timing data were collected during the 2 d after baseline sleep and the first 3 d after sleep restriction.Results During sleep restriction, subjects increased daily caloric intake (P < 0.001) and fat intake (P = 0.024), including obtaining more calories from condiments, desserts, and salty snacks (Ps < 0.05) and consumed 532.6 ± 295.6 cal during late-night hours (2200-0359). Relative to women, men consumed more daily calories during baseline and sleep restriction, exhibited a greater increase in caloric intake during sleep restriction (d = 0.62), and consumed a higher percentage of daily calories during late-night hours (d = 0.78, Ps < 0.05). African Americans and whites did not significantly differ in daily caloric intake, increased caloric intake during sleep restriction, or meal timing. However, African Americans consumed more carbohydrates, less protein, and more caffeine-free soda and juice than whites did during the study (Ps < 0.05).Conclusions Men may be more susceptible to weight gain during sleep loss than women due to a larger increase in daily caloric intake, particularly during late-night hours. These findings are relevant to the promotion of public health awareness by highlighting nutritional risk factors and modifiable behaviors for weight gain related to sleep-wake timing.
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Sleep deprivation of 4 h per night over 5 days leads to an increase in energy consumption of around 533 ± 296 kcal between 22:00 and 03:59 and a reduction of energy intake during 14:59-20:00 compared to baseline.
“sleep deprivation of 4 h per night over 5 days leads to an increase in energy consumption of around 533 ± 296 kcal between 22:00 and 03:59 and a reduction of energy intake during 14:59–20:00 compared to baseline (177).”
From Meal timing and its role in obesity and associated diseases (2024) · cites this paper as [177]
The Experimental design section reports five nights restricted to 4 hours in bed, and Meal timing reports 532.6 ± 295.6 calories consumed from 22:00 to 03:59. That figure is late-night intake, not an increase measured against baseline. The claimed afternoon reduction is contrary to Meal timing, which reports increased intake from 15:00 to 21:59; the Measures section also says intake analyses used only the first three restriction days. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn humans, energy intake is the largest contributor to metabolic homeostasis.
“Studies in humans show that energy expenditure (resting metabolic rate and so forth) contributes very little to metabolic changes during sleep restriction, and that energy intake is the largest contributor to metabolic homeostasis (42).”
From Oxalic acid and diacylglycerol 36:3 are cross-species markers of sleep debt (2015) · cites this paper as [42]
Human studies indicate that energy expenditure contributes little to metabolic changes during sleep restriction.
“Studies in humans show that energy expenditure (resting metabolic rate and so forth) contributes very little to metabolic changes during sleep restriction, and that energy intake is the largest contributor to metabolic homeostasis (42).”
From Oxalic acid and diacylglycerol 36:3 are cross-species markers of sleep debt (2015) · cites this paper as [42]
Laboratory findings show that physiologic sleep loss is associated with diabetes risk factors, including insulin resistance, and other diabetes risk factors, such as increased consumption of unhealthy foods.
“These studies are supported by laboratory findings that show that physiologic sleep loss is associated with diabetes risk factors, including insulin resistance,53–56 and other diabetes risk factors, such as increased consumption of unhealthy foods.57–59”
From Sleep, Health, and Society (2017) · cites this paper as [57]
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References 69 · Cited by 118
- Authors
- Spaeth, A. M., Dinges, D. F., & Goel, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Venue
- The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-08
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 559-566
- ISSN
- 0002-9165 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4095659
- OpenAlex
- W2047998089
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 19.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (UL1TR000003)
- U.S. Navy
- National Institute on Aging (F31AG044102)
- Office of Naval Research (N00014-11-1-0361, N00014)
- National Institute of Nursing Research (R01NR004281)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- sleep restriction, energy intake, sex differences, racial differences, African Americans, macronutrient intake, meal timing, late-night eating, dietary fat intake, weight gain, sleep timing, carbohydrate intake
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Black or African American, Energy Intake, Dietary Carbohydrates, Feeding Behavior, Female, Food Preferences, Humans, Hyperphagia, Male, Middle Aged, Pennsylvania, Risk Factors, Sex Characteristics, Sleep Deprivation, Weight Gain, Cross-Over Studies, White People, Young Adult, Diet, High-Fat
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