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The Tathagatagarbha Theory in the Mahaparinirvana-sutra
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IThe Mahaparini rvana-sutra (MPS) is a Mahayana scripture, in which is
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TL;DR
This article examines how the Mahaparinirvana-sutra develops tathagatagarbha thought through the concept of buddhadhatu, focusing on the portion preserved in the Chinese version C3 and Tibetan T2. It argues that the sutra’s distinctive contribution is its use of dhatu language and its positive atman vocabulary to express the universal presence of Buddha-nature.
Key findings
- The MPS’s basic tathagatagarbha statement is that a buddha-element exists in all sentient beings; the term buddhadhatu/tathagatadhatu, absent from the TGS, AAN, and Srimalasutra, seems to appear first in the MPS, so its tathagatagarbha theory is characterized as dhatu-astitva.
- In C3 Chapter XIII, atman is identified with tathagatagarbha; the dhatu is hidden by defilements, accessible only to Tathagatas, and is the ultimate refuge. Analogies include a buried treasure, a forehead jewel, Himalayan medicine, and a sword. This positive atman teaching explains why the MPS calls itself sandhavacana.
- Chapter XVII treats icchantikas, the sutra as the Tathagata’s secret word, and the non-difference of dhatu in essence versus its differentiation in appearance; milk, gold-mine, and five-stage sarpis analogies illustrate prakrtivisuddhata and vaimalyavisuddhata. The sutra also presents itself as an ultimate teaching at a time when, according to C1, only about 80 years remain before the destruction of the saddharma.
- The conclusion states that the MPS’s main contribution is the buddhadhatu concept as an explanation of tathagatagarbha; its atman expression is unique and identical with dhatu; it is less systematic than the AAN and SMS, lacks gotra/agotra terminology, and its date relative to the SMS is uncertain.
Methods
- Text-critical and philological comparison of Chinese and Tibetan translations (C1–C4, T1–T2) and three Sanskrit fragments, using Taisho, Peking, and Lhasa editions. C1 has 40 vols, C2 36 vols, C3 6 vols, C4 2 vols; T1 has 2 cases and T2 13 bampos.
- The analysis focuses only on the part equivalent to C3/T2 because all Sanskrit fragments and the sutra’s question index belong to that section; it examines chapter divisions, doctrinal passages, and analogies. C3 is said to occupy only the first one fourth of C1 in content.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: there is no space to discuss the icchantika problem, so the author recommends Mizutani’s article; the Sanskrit original is lost; the Indian origin of the remaining part of C1 is doubtful; and the author hesitates to date the MPS after the SMS because of its lack of systematization.
- Evident from the text: the conclusions are based on the reconstructed early portion rather than the whole C1, so claims about the full sutra are limited; the treatment is selective and not exhaustive.
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15 Own interpretation · 15 No basis given · 6 Own result · 5 Sources not found
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In the paper
“The fundamental statement of the TG theory in this sutra is found in the following sentence: sems can thams cad la sans rgyas kyi khams yod do.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“refers only to this part and never beyond it.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The tathagatagarbha is the atman from the highest and supermundane point of view.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“Thus we come to know that in these passages, what is the first concern of the sutra-composer was in establishing the astitva of TG as a synthesis of atma-and ni ratma-doctrine.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The term buddhadhatu (or tathagatadhatu), which is not appreared in the TGS, the Anunatvapurnatvanirdesa (AAN) and the S'rtmalasutra (SMS), the three basic scriptures on the TG theory, seems to be used for the first time in the MPS.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“Because of this atma--vada' which is apparently against the anatma-vada of Buddhism, the MPS called itself as the sandhavacana.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The biggest contribution of the MPS to the history of the TG theory is the establishment of 'the concept of buddhadhatu as explaining the nature of tathagatagarbha.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > VI
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In the paper
“The purpose of the sutra is to establish the Buddhist Community by means of this highest doctrine at the crisis of decline that will occur in the recent future.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“As all of these fragments are found in the part equivalent to C 3 and T 2, that part is at least sure of its Indian origin.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The originality of the remaining part of C 1 as from India is rather doubtful.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The dhatu being the essence of the Tathagata is the ultimate refuge.The Three Jewels are the sarana since they are of the nature of my 'dhatu, i. e. the essence of the Tathagata.Therefore one should take refuge only to the Tathagata.Further, he himself should be the refuge since he has the buddhadhatu within him.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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“There are various explanations of the nature of the TG such as: 1. Tg is 'bcud kyi khams dan hdra ba' (L.152b1) (bcud=rasa, amrta) 2. 'bdud rtsi rtag pa khams kyi dbyins' (eternal and amrta-like essence) (L.154a2), 'bdud rtsi mchog gi khams de ni nahi khams yin' (L.154a3) (This highest amrta-like dhatu is my essence.) 3. TG is yan dag pahi khams' (L.158b1), with which one should extinguish all the”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The buddhadhatu is the real atman.Example of a real sword in possession of a prince.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“This point is called the difficulty of understanding of the dhatu', and it was explained with various analogies beginning with a treasure under the ground of a poor 'woman's house.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“According to the MPS, mahaparini rvana' means the eternity of the tathagata being dharmakaya, and the death of the Preceptor is merely its conventional appearance for the sake of living beings, all of whom he regards as if his only son'.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“Here, on the request of Bodhisattva Kasyapa, the Buddha explains the tathagata-pratyekabuddha-sravaka-bodhisattva-dhatuni rnanakarana(-tva)' (Skt Fr. 2) with an analogy of cow milk.Namely cow milk is of the same quality inspite of the difference of the colour of cows.This seems to show the prakrtivisuddhata of the dhatu.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“Another important chapter with respect to the TG theory is Chap.XVII entitled the questions of the Bodhisattva.This chapter will be divided into the following three parts on account of the TG theory.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“There are 3 f ragmental portions known to us in Sanskrit:”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites RGV
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Chapter XIII of C 3 starts with the question whether the atman exists or not.The reply was that what is called atman is nothing but the tathagatagarbha and there exists the buddhadhatu in all the living beings, but they cannot see it-because it is hidden by various defilements.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The tathagatagarbha or buddhadhatu is difficult to be seen even -for those b odhisattvas who obtained the tenth stage (dasabhami).The tasthagatagarbha is the sphere accessible only to the Tathagatas.10 examples beginning with a taimirika.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“In section 2), this sutra is compared to the pure sarpis in comparison with other teachings which are like watered milk sold by gops'.Definition of TG as of manly character' is also notable.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The method of understanding the TG (tathagatagarbhapravesa), ad--vayata of atman and niratman, vidya and avidya, etc., being the madhyama pratipad.The teaching of duhkha, anitya, andtman, and sunya, and the TG theory.Parable of sarpis, the best of which is produced out of milk of cow who ate a kind of grass grown in the Himalaya called 'snum can (肥 賦).”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“the reason why the differences exist among sattvas inspite of the existence of the atman, the tathagatadhatu.Examples of a jewel at the forehead of a lestler who does not know it, of the medicine of one taste grown in the Himalaya which changes its taste according to the conditions.Although the buddhadhatu is unchangeable and indestructible, variety occurs due to the power of karman.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“T 1 is a translation of C 1 and C 4 combined in one.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
plainn = 2- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This statement is spoken of as from the Tathagatagarbhasutra (TGS), but the formula in the latter is that sarvasattvas tathagatagarbhah as observed in the RGV (p.25).”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites RGV
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Inspite of frequent references to the icchantika, the term agotra is snot used.In general, the gotra concept is lacking in the MPS.This point is common to the AAN, and the SMS.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Additional information
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In the paper
“While another example of the mine of gold shows the vaimalyavisuddhata in the sense that gold comes out of its mine after receiving purification.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“T 2 is a direct translation of the Indian source, and, though being increased in volume, it is equivalent to C 3 in its contents.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“At the same time the sutra never forget to refer to the difference between the Buddha, the Bodhisattvas and the ordinary beings, and is explained by an analogy of making process of sarpis out of milk with five stages.Namely the difference is considered to be merely the difference of stages or situations, and the essential identity throughout the whole process is implicitly maintained.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“The Mahaparini rvana-sutra (MPS) is a Mahayana scripture, in which is taught the real' meaning of the Buddha's mahaparini rvana on the basis of the Mahayanistic interpretation, borrowing the scene of his Great Death at Ksinara as depicted in a scripture of the same title in the Agama of the Primitive Buddhism (e. g.Dighanikaya No. 15).”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dighanikaya No. 15
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plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Emphasis on the worship of the dhatu as the only sarana.It is, on the one hand, an expression of the ekay ana doctrine similar to that of the SMS and shows its deep contact with the Saddharmapundarika.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“At the same time, however, it seems to be relating to the relic (dhatu) worship -which is supposed to be one of origins of the Mahayana movement.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This C 3 occupies only the first, one fourth of C 1 in its contents, but it seems to show the original form of this sutra.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
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In the paper
“This dhatu concept as showing the essence or nature common to sattvas and the Tathagata seems to be introduced by the AAN, but the MPS, succeding the AAN, utilized it in its full scope”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > VI
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In the paper
“Notable points in this chapter are, 1) a positive expression of the TG in terms of atman.This is no doubt relating to -the definition of the dharmakaya as being nitya, atman, sukha and subha, which is one of the essential doctrines of this sutra as observed in the parable of water sport quoted in the RGV.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites RGV
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The same connotation is expressed often using the term TG instead of buddhadhatu (e. g.L. 119a2-3), and we come to know that the modification took place in the MPS by introducing the concept of dhatu in order to explain the TG.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of them, 1) the problem of 'the icchantika is another important subject not only of this sutra but of the TG theory in general.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Mizutani
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another point which is reminded of in this relation is the teaching of attadipa' or attasarana told in the M'ahaparinibbana-suttanta. The existence -of buddhadhatu seems to show the ground of this teaching.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most unique expression of this sutra with respect to the TG is the atman, which is regarded as a sort of taboo in Buddhism*.Connotation Wof this term in the text is completely identical with dhatu'.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Additional information
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This doctrine of the eternity of the Tathagata is interwoven with the theory of the tathagatagarbha (TG) as sine qua non and due to this theory, the MPS declares itself the ultimate scripture (rgyud phyi mahi yan phyi ma=uttarottara-tantra?) being the secret word (sandhavacana) of the Tathagata.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus the TG theory in the MPS will be defined as the theory of 'dhatu-astitva'.”
§ The Tathgatagarbha a Theory in the Mahparinirvna-stra Jikido Takasaki > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
The Sanskrit original of the MPS is lost.
“The Sanskrit original of this sutra seems to have been lost”
The paper relies on this without support.
The extant Chinese and Tibetan translations faithfully transmit the content of the lost MPS sufficiently for doctrinal and textual analysis.
“we have at present the following translations in Chinese and Tibetan, Tripitakas.”
Citations
Metadata
- Authors
- Takasaki, J.
- Venue
- Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyu)
- Published
- 1971
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 1024-1015
- ISSN
- 0019-4344 (ISSN-L)
- 1884-0051
- OpenAlex
- W2333385684
- Cited by
- 0
- References
- 0
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- JOURNAL OF INDIAN AND BUDDHIST STUDIES (INDOGAKU BUKKYOGAKU KENKYU) (publishedVersion)
- JOURNAL OF INDIAN AND BUDDHIST STUDIES (INDOGAKU BUKKYOGAKU KENKYU)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Study and Philosophy of Religion
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Traditional Chinese Medicine Studies
- Keywords
- Mahaparinirvana Sutra, Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha-nature, Buddhist scriptures, Nirvana
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-05 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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