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Rising Up from a Sea of Discontent
Abstract
This chapter examines the 1970 Koza uprising in U.S.-occupied Okinawa and highlights the shared links between Okinawan, African American, and Third World movements in response to U.S. imperialism and militarism. In the midst of the rebellion, Okinawans purposefully refrained from harming African American soldiers, saying that they were “the same as us.” As a territory that has been colonized by Japan and the United States and continues to remain under de facto shared rule by the U.S. military and the Japanese government, Okinawa represents the coarticulation of this complementary and dual neocolonial system. Despite the fact that Okinawa comprises only 0.6 percent of Japanese national territory, 75 percent of U.S. military bases in Japan are concentrated in Okinawa. Okinawa was officially reverted from U.S. military governance back to the Japanese government in 1972, yet its economy, territory, and peoples remain subordinate to the U.S. military’s commanding presence that occupies approximately 11 percent of its lands and 19 percent of Okinawa’s main island.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Wesley Iwao Ueunten reinterprets the December 20, 1970 Koza Uprising in U.S.-occupied Okinawa as a popular uprising against overlapping Japanese and American colonialisms, not a mindless riot. The chapter situates the uprising within Okinawa’s history of Japanese colonization, the Battle of Okinawa, U.S. military occupation, and transnational solidarity with African American soldiers and Third World movements.
Key findings
- On December 20, 1970, after an American driver hit an Okinawan pedestrian in Koza, a crowd grew to about 1,000 people; over six hours about seventy cars were burned and nineteen Okinawans were arrested, with no deaths, looting, or damage to private businesses reported.
- The uprising occurred in a context of U.S. military land control: about 20 percent of Okinawa is occupied by U.S. military bases, and about 75 percent of all U.S. military facilities in Japan are located in Okinawa, though Okinawa comprises less than 1 percent of Japan’s land area.
- The chapter links the uprising to sexual colonization: 1969 statistics cited report 7,400 Okinawan women, or about one in every 40 to 50 women aged 10 to 60, were involved in prostitution, and Koza was the major site of the bar and sex industry catering to American troops.
- It also documents anti-base sentiment and violence: a June 1967 survey found 45.5 percent of respondents expressed strong anxiety for safety, 30.0 percent felt “somehow insecure,” and only 1.7 percent felt safety was assured by U.S. bases; crimes by Americans connected to the U.S. military rose from 973 cases in 1964 to 1,003 in 1965 and 1,407 in 1966, with “atrocious and violent crimes” rising from 265 cases in 1964 to 446 in 1966.
Methods
- Historical and social-contextual analysis of the Koza Uprising, using the Okinawan concept of *yu* to frame overlapping Japanese, war, and American world orders.
- Draws on U.S. military documents based on Okinawan civilian police records, Okinawan and U.S. newspaper coverage, declassified reports, oral-history interviews, literary texts such as Higashionna Tsuneo’s *Okinawa no shōnen*, and secondary scholarship.
- Analyzes the uprising through a tripartite Okinawa–United States–Japan relationship and through linked frameworks of U.S. internal colonialism, external U.S. and Japanese colonialisms, and sexual colonization.
Limitations
- The paper states that its list of crimes against Okinawan women by U.S. military personnel, 1969–1971, “cannot be said to be complete” and does not include sexual violence in the form of prostitution or “consensual” relationships based on false promises by American men.
- The text is a historically interpretive chapter rather than a systematic quantitative study; its claims about consciousness, solidarity, and causation rely on archival, journalistic, oral-history, and literary sources rather than a formal comparative or statistical design.
- The paper does not present a separate limitations section beyond the note on incomplete crime data; other constraints, such as reliance on available declassified and published sources, are evident from the text.
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Claims the paper makes
74 Sources not found · 62 Own interpretation · 10 No basis given · 6 Own result · 3 Not checked yet · 1 Own method
In the paper
“Okinawan civilians thus organized a public demonstration in Itoman that took place only four days before the Koza Uprising.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7]
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A result the paper states — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“over seventy cars owned by Americans and a few buildings on the huge Kadena Air Force Base, for which the town of Koza served as an entertainment district, were burned by Okinawans.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to U.S. military documents based on local Okinawan civilian police records, at about 1:00 a.m. on December 20, 1970, an American under the infl uence of alcohol hit an Okinawan pedestrian, who was also drunk, as he was crossing a street in Koza.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“An altercation followed where the soldiers were beaten up by a group of Okinawan bar employees.”
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In the paper
“In most cases, Americans who committed crimes against Okinawans were oft en let go or given light punishment.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [43]
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In the paper
“Relations between the Okinawans and the blacks were later improved on January 15, 1972, when various black organizations, Latino and white soldiers, and Okinawans took part in a twelve-kilometer march in memory of Martin Luther King, Jr.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [61]
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In the paper
“Two longtime Japanese American women activists and friends, Minn Matsuda and Kazu Iijima, who wanted to create a Japanese American group in New York for their college-age children, established Asian Americans for Action (AAA) in the fall of 1968.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [66]
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In the paper
“Okinawans watching the march applauded the participants when they learned about its purpose.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [61]
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plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“there was a car accident involving a black soldier and an Okinawan.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [60]
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plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“both Japanese and American empires in Asia must be seen as gendered and sexualized projects and projections.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“About 75 percent of all U.S. military facilities in Japan are located in Okinawa, despite the fact that Okinawa comprises less than 1 percent of the land area of Japan.”
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In the paper
“As the MPs and police drove away, however, the crowd went completely out of control and proceeded to split into two groups, overturning cars with yellow plates, or plates with F-numbers, which indicated that they were owned by Americans. Th ey pushed the cars into the road and burned them. Th e crowd even went onto Kadena Air Base and set fi re to some buildings.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [11]
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In the paper
“the uprising resulted in no deaths, damage to private businesses, or looting.”
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In the paper
“Aft er six hours, about seventy cars had been burned and nineteen Okinawans had been arrested.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [13]
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In the paper
“about 20 percent of Okinawa, the main island in the Ryûkyû Archipelago, is occupied by U.S. military bases.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“in the midst of the uprising, Okinawans consciously refrained from harming African American soldiers and their property.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Th e news of the Koza Uprising quickly disappeared from American newspapers. Any follow-up to the uprising was conspicuously absent from the newspapers that had covered it the day before.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It 'rewarded' Okinawa and the city of Nago by hosting the United Nations G-7 summit at a resort in Nago.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A television drama series about an Okinawan family was also broadcast around the time of the summit.”
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In the paper
“Okinawan women have also helped to unleash major protest movements in Okinawa as a result of the 1995 rape of a twelve-year-old Okinawan girl, among other pressing issues.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the plan for reducing the military burden in Okinawa is to shift it to Guam.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Several notable white antiwar activists, including Jane Fonda, came to Okinawa to lead protests against the Vietnam War and U.S. militarism.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Some of the Okinawans began breaking the windshields of American cars parked near the gate and beating up any black soldier that passed by.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [60]
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In the paper
“One of its early members was Yuri Kochiyama, a close friend of Malcolm X and an icon of radical politics.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [66]
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In the paper
“Understandably, since it was shown on NHK, the government-run broadcasting organ, not once did the series delve into 'negative' issues such as discrimination against Okinawans by Japanese, the Battle of Okinawa, or the U.S. military bases.”
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In the paper
“In total, Okinawans perhaps number less than two million.”
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In the paper
“a critical examination of the Koza Uprising reveals the postwar U.S. colonial empire for what it really is: an insular and isolated island in itself.”
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In the paper
“Okinawa is now an offi cial part of Japan and has thus returned to yamatu yu , but the presence of American military bases needed to protect Japanese economic and political interests still places it clearly within amerika yu .”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Japan has benefi ted from U.S. colonial rule over Okinawa, as its postwar 'economic miracle' was made possible by the U.S. military umbrella concentrated in Okinawa.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Consequently, Koza uncomfortably reveals the racialized, gendered, and sexualized aspects of the U.S. military presence in Okinawa while reminding Americans of the racialized, gendered, and sexualized aspects of American society itself.”
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In the paper
“Th e military annexation of the Ryukyuan kingdom was part of the territorial expansion of Japanese imperialism and the beginning of colonial violence toward the Okinawans.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [23]
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plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the Koza Uprising took place against the backdrop of U.S. imperialism in Asia and its colonial rule over Okinawa.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Ironically, the era of Japanese colonization over Okinawa was spurred by nascent American imperialism in Asia.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“each yu is not in a linear temporal relationship to the others. Rather, yu ' s coexist, overlap, and interact.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Th is network resembles and even overlaps the former Japanese military's arrangement of military installations and brothels (euphemistically referred to as 'comfort stations') and the present Japanese system of economic incursions and sex tourism throughout Asia and the Pacifi c.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“we cannot analyze Okinawa as merely a colonized and racialized space. Okinawa must be seen as part of a larger network of U.S. military installations and U.S.-friendly countries that catered to the sexual needs of American troops.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Th e Ryûkyûan Kingdom was allowed to remain in existence, but, for over 350 years, Satsuma used the threat of military force to skim off profi ts from Ryûkyû-China trade and extract taxes from Okinawa.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Oguma Eiichiro writes that the dual relationship of the Ryûkyûs to China and Satsuma was possible in the international order of East Asia before the introduction of the modern nation-state model.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20] Oguma Eiji, ' Nihonjin' no Kyokai: Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Chosen, shokuminchi shihai kara fukki undo made (Th e boundaries of the Japanese: Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Korea, from colonial control to the reversion movement), 1st ed. (Tokyo: Shinyosha, 1998), 19.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“No such violent protest by Okinawans toward U.S. military occupation can be remembered before or since then.”
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In the paper
“Perry's arrival in Edo Bay in 1853, and his gunboat diplomacy, drove home the point that Japan needed to catch up with the West to avoid being colonized by it.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the United States' entry into Asia was from the start a masculine incursion (starting from at least Commodore Matthew Perry's landing in Okinawa in 1853)”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In the years following the Communist takeover of China in 1949 and the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, the United States stepped up eff orts to expand its military facilities on Okinawa.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Okinawa is but a small island territory with very limited resources at the fringes of the U.S. empire as well as part of a Japanese national sovereignty that depends on that empire.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One could say it illustrated both the strength to fi ght in response to the 20 years of oppression since the war ended and to the weight of history.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [48]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the contradictory nature of the uprising is part and parcel of other contradictions that arise from Okinawa's particular positionality in global geopolitics.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Th e fi nal Okinawan death toll, however, is probably higher, since among the dead were many Okinawan teenagers who were recruited by the Japanese Army as soldiers and nurses.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Perhaps more threatening is the fact Okinawan women take more leadership roles in antimilitary protests, bridging international connections with women in places where global militarization violates the human rights of women and children, such as Guam, Hawai'i, Japan, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and South Korea.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the contrary, it has struck back by actually encouraging Okinawan culture and 'worldwide' Okinawan networks.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to Takamine, the Okinawans were already well organized from earlier base workers' strikes and were able to gather over one hundred people.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Takamine
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“And while the black soldiers were heirs to a long history of white sexual domination over black women, in Okinawa they enjoyed some limited sexual privilege over Okinawan women, a fact that Okinawan males resented.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, Robert Blauner wrote that the 'ghetto riots' in several urban areas across the United States were not merely attempts by blacks to gain fuller integration into the social order and access to the material benefi ts that were enjoyed by the majority of American citizens.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [50]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“While they could captivate their American-soldier audiences in nightly performances, like other Okinawans, Okinawan rock musicians were reminded daily of the sexualized nature of the U.S. occupation and of their powerlessness against American extraterritoriality.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [44]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a causeSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Th e incident also seems to be reminiscent of the ghetto riots across the United States that took place between 1965 and 1968, which observers such as Gans and Blauner point out were more than physical acts of violence and looting but rather were 'spontaneous rebellions' against the white, racist treatment African Americans experienced in the United States.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [49]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [50]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in the black section of Koza there existed a group of black soldiers called the Bush Masters who, according to Takamine, wore jackets with a panther embroidered on the back suggesting a connection to the Black Power movement, the Black Panther Party, or both.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Th e ultra masculine personas that Okinawan rock bands developed perhaps also refl ected an Okinawan male response to the sexualized and feminized positionality that Okinawa, in general, and Koza, in particular, was forced to hold in East Asian geopolitics.”
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It also helped to transform Okinawan culture into a commodity for consumption by an increasing number of people who claim to 'love' everything about Okinawa, except the U.S. bases.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown previously, the U.S. military tried to put up a facade of democracy in Okinawa by establishing the GRI.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As with most statistics on crimes against women, this list cannot be said to be complete and, moreover, does not include sexual violence in the form of prostitution and 'consensual' relationships based on false promises by American men of marriage and life in the United States.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It was clear that civil liberties under the USCAR-GRI regime were inferior to those enjoyed by citizens in any prefecture of Japan under the 1947 Constitution.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [31]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, darker skin was not simply associated with the preannexation peasant class; aft er Japanese annexation darker skin became a marker of the impurity and inferiority of Okinawans vis-à-vis Japanese from the main islands of Japan.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Okinawan experiences of death, destruction, and discrimination under Japanese rule no doubt increased their comprehension of American racism in Okinawa.”
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such questions require looking at Koza as a meeting place of U.S. internal colonialism, characterized by racism against African Americans and other nonwhites, and external U.S. and Japanese colonialisms, manifested with impunity in Okinawa.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Th e terms of the payment were not acceptable to the Okinawans, and widespread protest swept through Okinawa.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In June 1967, for example, the Okinawan newspaper Ryûkyû shimposha conducted a public survey of Okinawan attitudes toward the U.S. military.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A statement the paper makes itself — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the United States invaded and occupied Okinawa in 1945. It did not offi cially relinquish control until 1972, when it 'returned' the islands to Japan.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite the new 'positive' image that Okinawans enjoyed, it served to direct the Japanese public's attention away from Okinawans' discontent over the presence of U.S. military bases in Okinawa.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although Okinawan discrimination against black soldiers was no doubt an extension of Japan's internalization of white supremacy, Okinawans' own prejudices against darker skin could be linked to other dynamics.”
hedgedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When asked if the U.S. military bases made Okinawans feel secure, 45.5 percent of the respondents expressed strong anxiety for their safety, whereas 30.0 percent felt 'somehow insecure. ' Only 1.7 percent felt that their safety was assured by the presence of U.S. bases.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [40]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, the intense daily contact between American soldiers and Okinawans in Koza was also refl ected in sophisticated understandings of race, as evidenced by the previously mentioned poem, 'Th e Colored Race,' by Koza resident Arakawa.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates an associationSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Th is style of protest against oppression on a mass scale is glaringly absent in Okinawa before or since.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“On August 30, 1969, a group of fi ft y or more black soldiers got into a confrontation with some MPs over a trivial incident: the group's anger exploded when an intimidated MP fi red his gun.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [58]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A statement the paper makes itself — it cites no source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In 1950, the United States set up the U.S. Civil Administration of the Ryûkyûs (USCAR) and the Government of the Ryûkyû Islands (GRI).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Higashionna's writings express the seething discontent of the people of Koza over their racial, economic, and sexual subordination to the occupying U.S. military.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [46]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Japan's chronic unwillingness to accept genuinely Okinawans as fellow humans is at odds with its strategic need to keep Okinawans in the Japanese nation-state in order to strengthen Japan's defense against invasions from perceived enemies.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Takamine's description of the black section of Koza provides a view of intimate exchanges between the black soldiers and Okinawans that no doubt had lasting eff ects on Okinawan consciousness.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To protect the 'homeland'-of which Okinawa was not considered a part-the Japanese military fought a desperate battle on Okinawa, in which, as historian George Feifer writes in Th e Battle of Okinawa , some 150,000 noncombatant Okinawans died.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [24] George Feifer, Th e Battle of Okinawa: Th e Blood and the Bomb (New York: First Lyons Press, 2001), xi.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“It is because of this context of discontent that surrounded Okinawan life in Koza that I have chosen to use the word 'uprising' rather than 'riot' to describe the events of December 20, 1970.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [47]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such discontent lay just below the surface of the forced civility that Okinawans had to display toward American military personnel in order to survive as their service providers and entertainers.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Since this minshū hōki was not something planned, had no leaders, and was carried out in response to the course of events at the time, one could call it a sōdō [disturbance or riot], but it was not a disorderly sōdō .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [48]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the U.S. military may have shown more concern for the lives of Okinawan civilians than the Japanese military, U.S. military interests ultimately held the highest priority over the livelihood and liberty of Okinawan civilians.”
hedgedstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“on April 9, 1945, the Japanese military gave the following order: 'From now on soldiers and civilians as well are all required to use nothing but standard Japanese. Th ose who speak Okinawan will be regarded as spies and receive appropriate punishment.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [26] Masahide Ota, 'Re-examining the History of the Battle of Okinawa,' in Okinawa: Cold War Island , ed. Chalmers Johnson (Cardiff , Calif.: Japanese Policy Research Institute, 1999), 30.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consequently, Okinawa became a U.S. colony in which the democracy of the Okinawans was sacrifi ced.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“U.S. Brigadier General William Crist, who was responsible for the military government project on Okinawa, announced in a radio broadcast to the rest of the United States that 'the fi rst aim of the military government is to make it possible for combat units to concentrate on the war without having to worry about non-combat personnel.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [30]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the cold war environment of the time, the American authorities cracked down on the magazine by recalling copies that had been distributed, banning publication for six months, and expelling four editors who had been part of the protest movement.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [36]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In short, Okinawan women are formidable in their role as navigators in the sea of discontent, as they rely on matriarchal Okinawan cultural values that emphasize the sanctity of life and nature while they steer Okinawans toward political alliances with the larger world.”
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, internal and external colonialism cannot be analyzed separately from sexual colonization because the oppression of African Americans and other racial minorities in American history has been inextricably linked to the commodifi cation, exploitation, and subjugation of nonwhite female and male bodies.”
plainstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Th e group overturned the MP patrol car and set it on fi re.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [58]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
Okinawans seldom use the word 'kill'.
“Seldom do Okinawans use the word 'kill, '”
The paper relies on this without support.
African Americans were disproportionately represented in the Vietnam War.
“African Americans, who were disproportionately represented in the Vietnam War.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The city of Koza did not exist before the American occupation.
“Th e city of Koza did not exist before the American occupation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Koza developed as a base town that catered to Kadena Air Base, the largest U.S. military base in Asia, in the central part of Okinawa.
“It developed as a base town that catered to Kadena Air Base, the largest U.S. military base in Asia, in the central part of Okinawa.”
The paper relies on this without support.
A large proportion of the people of Koza settled there after having been displaced by the destruction of the Battle of Okinawa and by the construction of Kadena and other U.S. military bases.
“A large proportion of the people of Koza settled there aft er having been displaced by the destruction of the Battle of Okinawa and by the construction of Kadena and other U.S. military bases.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many of the displaced groups depended economically on the bars, strip clubs, and other components of a recreation industry that catered to young male Americans during the Vietnam conflict.
“Many of the displaced groups depended economically on the bars, strip clubs, and other components of a recreation industry that catered to young male Americans during the Vietnam confl ict.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The U.S. military's forward presence in the Far East was intended to protect and promote freedom and democracy.
“Th e black segregated district of Teruya described by the rock musician reveals the irony that the American forward presence in the Far East was to protect and promote freedom and democracy.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Koza Uprising · p. 5
“A few weeks earlier, on September 18, 1970,”
§ The Koza Uprising · p. 4
“at about 1:00 a.m. on December 20, 1970,”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Koza Uprising · p. 7
“Any follow-up to the uprising was conspicuously absent from the newspapers that had covered it the day before.”
§ Notes · p. 30
“Th e New York Times had an article on the U.S. military's need to keep troops in Okinawa and did have a photo of U.S. military policemen fi ring tear gas during the uprising.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“In 1609, Satsuma staged a military invasion of Okinawa, known then as Ryûkyû, 19 under the pretense of punishing it for not contributing to Japan's earlier attempts to invade China. Th e Ryûkyûan Kingdom was allowed to remain in existence, but, for over 350 years, Satsuma used the threat of military force to skim off profi ts from Ryûkyû-China trade and extract taxes from Okinawa.”
Reported 350 · recomputed 270
Citations
Cites
Still being checked.
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- [22]See Aniya Masaaki, ' Kengai dekasegi to kennai ijuu (Interprefectural sojourning and intraprefectural migration), ' in Okinawaken Shi , vol. 7 (Tokyo: Sentoraru Insatsujo, 1974), 423-55; and Mitsugu Sakihara, 'Th e History of Okinawa,' in Uchinananchu: A History of Okinawans in Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1981), 14.
- [24]George Feifer, Th e Battle of Okinawa: Th e Blood and the Bomb (New York: First Lyons Press, 2001), xi.
- [25]Masaie Ishihara, 'War Experiences of the People of Okinawa and the Development of the Okinawan Philosophy of Peace' (paper presented at the International Conference on Th e Politics of Remembering the Asia/Pacifi c War, EastWest Center, in Honolulu, Hawai'i, September 7-9, 1995). Th e paper cited here is an expanded and revised version of 'Th e Memories of War and the Role of Okinawa in the Promotion of World Peace.'
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Repeating Islands of Resistance: Redefining Security in Militarized Landscapes
Davis, S. (2012) · Human Geography · doi:10.1177/194277861200500101 · Cited by 15
Blackness, Race, and Language Politics in Japanese Hiphop
Fischer, D.-E. (2013) · Transforming Anthropology · doi:10.1111/traa.12017 · Cited by 11
Research report: historical amnesia and the “neo-imperial gaze” in the Okinawa boom
Kühne, O. E. (2012) · Contemporary Japan · doi:10.1515/cj-2012-0010 · Cited by 9
Dalisay, F. S. (2014) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1017/prp.2014.2 · Cited by 8
Decolonizing knowledge of and from Okinawa
Nishiyama, H. (2022) · Critical Asian Studies · doi:10.1080/14672715.2022.2136098 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Ueunten, W. I.
- Corresponding author
- Ueunten, Wesley Iwao
- Venue
- Militarized Currents
- Publisher
- University of Minnesota Press
- Published
- 2010-04-12
- Pages
- 91-124
- OpenAlex
- W2495410781
- Semantic Scholar
- 747b2335327b1b9108f901555ae1d914052b918c
- Cited by
- 10
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 11.38
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- University of Minnesota Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Japanese History and Culture
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Asian American and Pacific Histories
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Race, History, and American Society
- Keywords
- Okinawa, US military bases, Okinawan resistance, African American soldiers, Third World movement, American imperialism, militarism, neocolonialism, shared rule, Okinawa reversion
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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