The DOI matches its Crossref record; 52 of the 54 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Online Distance Education: A Literature Review
Open accessAbstract
Although online distance education provides adult learners with an opportunity for life-long learning, there are still factors challenging them to engage in educational processes. The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education through the analysis of the relevant literature. The articles (N=36) published in the key journals in the fields of open and distance education, instructional technology, and adult education were reviewed and analyzed through constant comparative analysis in the current study. The findings reveal that adult learners have challenges related to internal, external, and program-related factors indicating the interrelated nature of these challenges. The findings also show that the challenges experienced by adult learners vary depending on their age, gender, knowledge and skills as well as the context in which they study. The findings of this study, which has an exploratory nature, have several implications for distance education stakeholders such as administrators, instructors, instructional designers, and policy makers.
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“This behavior is particularly prevalent when students perceive time constraints or multi-semester academic fatigue, leading them to rely on rapid prompt engineering and verbatim copy-pasting to meet assessment deadlines rather than synthesizing the provided pedagogical content (Cercone, 2008;Kara et al., 2019).”
From Navigating Academic Integrity and Student Rationalisations of Generative AI in Vocational Online Learning Environments (2026) · cites this paper as Kara et al., 2019
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“Recent empirical research in educational technology and cognitive psychology strongly supports the phenomenon of learners bypassing foundational course materials in favor of unedited AI outputs (Cercone, 2008;Hong et al., 2025;Kara et al., 2019;Risko & Gilbert, 2016).”
From Navigating Academic Integrity and Student Rationalisations of Generative AI in Vocational Online Learning Environments (2026) · cites this paper as Kara et al., 2019
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“Over time, this creates a cognitive dependency that undermines authentic skill acquisition, demonstrating how short-term efficiency goals override deep learning when assessment models fail to account for automated offloading (Cercone, 2008;Hong et al., 2025;Kara et al., 2019;Risko & Gilbert, 2016).”
From Navigating Academic Integrity and Student Rationalisations of Generative AI in Vocational Online Learning Environments (2026) · cites this paper as Kara et al., 2019
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Citations
Cites
The Constant Comparative Method of Qualitative Analysis
Glaser, B. G. (1965) · Social Problems · doi:10.2307/798843 · Cited by 4,937 · cited 1×
“The articles were firstly organized in an article database created by the researchers and were analyzed by using Constant Comparative Analysis method as suggested by Glaser (1965).”
Method(2009) · US Department of Education · Cited by 3,654
BEYOND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS: ISSUES OF INTERACTION, PRESENCE, AND PERFORMANCE IN AN ONLINE COURSE
Picciano, A. G. (2002) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v6i1.1870 · Cited by 1,313 · cited 1×
“Interaction is also considered as a key factor in online distance education and it is a good predictor of learning (Picciano, 2002).”
BackgroundDistance Education: A Systems View of Online Learning
Kearsley, G., & Moore, M. G. (2011) · Cited by 1,088
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE STUDENTS’ DECISION TO DROPOUT OF ONLINE COURSES
Willging, P. A., & Johnson, S. D. (2009) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v13i3.1659 · Cited by 446 · cited 8×
“…or internal challenges such as the incongruences between the course materials and learners’ preferences, learners’ lack of prerequisite knowledge about courses and programs (Grace & Smith, 2001; Pierrakeas et al., 2004) or their lack of interest in the course materials (Willging & Johnson, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialAppanna, S. (2008) · QUT ePrints (Queensland University of Technology) · Cited by 358
Examining online teaching, cognitive, and social presence for adult students
Ke, F. (2010) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.03.013 · Cited by 327 · cited 2×
“In spite of the increase in the number of adult learners and consequently in the diversity of the students in online distance education, the number of the studies related to them are fewer in the literature than those studies about traditional learners (Chu & Tsai, 2009; Ke, 2010; Remedios & Richardson, 2013).”
BackgroundResultOnline MBA students' perceptions of online learning: Benefits, challenges, and suggestions
Kim, K., Liu, S., & Bonk, C. J. (2005) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2005.09.005 · Cited by 307
Lim, C. K. (2001) · American Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.1080/08923640109527083 · Cited by 294 · cited 1×
“Considering the advantages of online distance education, adults compose the largest audience for online distance education (Ke & Xie, 2009; Lim, 2001) and consequently the limits of the diversity expand in online distance education practices.”
BackgroundXenos, M., Pierrakeas, C. J., & Pintelas, P. (2002) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(02)00072-6 · Cited by 279 · cited 3×
“These sorts of challenges include too difficult assignments (Rao & Giuli, 2010; Willging & Johnson, 2009), lack of clarity in assignments (Dumais et al., 2013), and too difficult or demanding courses or programs (Willging & Johnson, 2009; Xenos et al., 2002).”
Background
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of Adult Learners With Implications for Online Learning Design. AACE Journal, 16(2), 137–159. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/24286
- Chu, R. & Tsai, C. C. (2009). Self-directed learning readiness, Internet self-efficacy and preferences towards constructivist Internet-based learning environments among higher-aged adults. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(5), 489–501. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00324 · DOI
- De Paepe, L., Zhu, C., & DePryck, K. (2018). Drop-out, Retention, Satisfaction and Attainment of Online Learners of Dutch in Adult Education. International Journal on E-Learning, 17(3), 303–323. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/174173
- Knowles, M. (1996). Adult Learning. In Robert L. Craig (Ed.), The ASTD Training and Development Handbook (pp. 253–264). NY: McGraw-Hill.
- Martinez, M. (2003). High attrition rates in e-learning: Challenges, predictors and solutions. The E-Learning Developers’ Journal. Retrieved from https://www.elearningguild.com/pdf/2/071403MGT-L.pdf
- Park, J. H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors Influencing Adult Learners’ Decision to Drop Out or Persist in Online Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 207–217. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/jeductechsoci.12.4.207 · DOI
- Tekinarslan, E. (2004). Project-based distributed learning and adult learners. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 5(2), 74–80. Retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/makale_goster.php?id=136
- Wang, V. C. (2011). Online Adult Education: Policy, Access, Completion and Equity. In Encyclopedia of Information Communication Technologies and Adult Education Integration (pp. 506–520). IGI Global.
- (self.__next_s=self.__next_s||[]).push([0,{"children":"window.__ENV__ = {\"RECAPTCHA_SITE_KEY\":\"6LcYznklAAAAAPGZZaBoCrKLs-JTufAxQql-LxNH\",\"SERVICE_CODE\":\"up-j-op\",\"FRONTEND_URL\":\"https://openpraxis.org\",\"FRONTEND_DOMAIN\":\"openpraxis.org\",\"OJS_API_URL\":\"https://api.account.up-j-op.ubiquityjournal.website/api/journal/1\"};","id":"public-env"}])This page is for printing. If you wish to read this article, please visit its full version.Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Online Distance Education: A Literature ReviewMehmet KaraFatih ErdoğduMehmet KokoçKursat CagiltayAbstractAlthough online distance education provides adult learners with an opportunity for life-long learning, there are still factors challenging them to engage in educational processes. The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education through the analysis of the relevant literature. The articles (N=36) published in the key journals in the fields of open and distance education, instructional technology, and adult education were reviewed and analyzed through constant comparative analysis in the current study. The findings reveal that adult learners have challenges related to internal, external, and program-related factors indicating the interrelated nature of these challenges. The findings also show that the challenges experienced by adult learners vary depending on their age, gender, knowledge and skills as well as the context in which they study. The findings of this study, which has an exploratory nature, have several implications for distance education stakeholders such as administrators, instructors, instructional designers, and policy makers.Year: 2019Volume: 11 Issue: 1Page/Article: 5-22DOI: 10.5944/openpraxis.11.1.929Accepted on Jan 21, 2019Published on Mar 31, 2019Peer ReviewedCC BY 4.0 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Lin, X. Y. (2023) · Adult Learning · doi:10.1177/10451595231184928 · Cited by 227
“For instance, through systematic reviewing previous literature, Mehmet Kara et al. (2019) indicated that adult learners usually fi nd it dif fi cult to search for and access available information due to their insuf fi cient technical skills and interaction on the internet.”
InfluentialPerspectives of Online Education in Pakistan: Post-covid Scenario
Farrukh, M., Soomro, T. R., Ghazal, T. M., Alzoubi, H. M., & Alshurideh, M. T. (2023) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-12382-5_28 · Cited by 82
Move to Online Learning during COVID-19 Lockdown: Pre-Service Teachers’ Experiences in Ghana
Ogbonnaya, U. I., Awoniyi, F. C., & Matabane, M. E. (2020) · International Journal of Learning Teaching and Educational Research · doi:10.26803/ijlter.19.10.16 · Cited by 66
“Similarly, lack of concentration due to distractions from family members and family responsibilities has been found in some previous studies to be a challenge to meaningful online learning (Figueroa et al., 2020; Kara et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDropout in Rural Higher Education: A Systematic Review
Guzmán, A., Moreno, S. P. B., & Vitery, F. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.727833 · Cited by 79
Xavier, M., & Meneses, J. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-022-00338-6 · Cited by 64
“Some findings of this study were predictable and expected, as they are supported in prior persistence literature (e.g., Kara et al., 2019).”
Result
Metadata
- Authors
- Kara, M., Erdoğdu, F., Kokoç, M., & Cagiltay, K.
- Affiliations
- Amasya Üniversitesi (TR)
- Trabzon University (TR)
- Corresponding author
- Kara, Mehmet
- Venue
- Open Praxis
- Published
- 2019-03-31
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5
- ISSN
- 1369-9997 (ISSN-L)
- 2304-070X
- OpenAlex
- W2920407843
- Cited by
- 265
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 66.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Locations
- Open Praxis (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Open Praxis (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- OpenMETU (Middle East Technical University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Social Sciences › Education › Adult and Continuing Education Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Leadership and Innovation
- Keywords
- adult learners, online distance learning, open and distance learning, lifelong learning, student learning difficulties, student engagement, instructional design, adult education
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