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“By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom”: The “Sūtra-Rotation” Liturgy of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā at Dunhuang
Open accessAbstract
This paper focuses on the ritual context of the 200,000-line Chinese Great Perfection of Wisdom (Dabore jing; *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra) at Dunhuang. Beside the fact that the purpose of the mass production of sūtras was to generate merit and then present a “merit gift” for the sponsor, the copies were reused as ritual instruments in the large-scale chanting liturgy called “sūtra-rotation” (zhuanjing). This paper examines the relevant administrative documents and liturgical texts to reconstruct the three modules of the liturgy, i.e., the preparation stage, the pronouncement of a “liturgical script,” and the “long-playing” chanting. By analyzing key passages in the Prajñāpāramitā (Perfection of Wisdom) literature, the paper argues that the Great Perfection of Wisdom was taken as an apotropaic device with unmediated protective power.
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Claims the paper makes
46 Sources not found · 34 Own interpretation · 17 Own result · 17 No basis given · 4 Not checked yet
In the paper
“In addition to these two terms, one administrative document (S .4664) mentions a “ritual arena for confession” (bailu daochang 白露道場), where nonstop chanting performed by six groups (tuan 團) was monitored by administrators .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites S .4664
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In Table 1, except for no .19, the Great Perfection-rotation (or Hundred Thousand-rotation in one case) was sponsored by either the state (guojia 國家; Tib .rgyal khams) or people of political importance, including the Tibetan emperor (zanpu 贊普; Tib .brtsan po), the Inspector of the Army (jianjun 監軍; Tib .spyan), the Prefect of Guazhou (Guazhou jiedu 瓜 州節度; Tib .kva cu'i rtse rje blon) and his wife,”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, Great Perfection-rotation was clearly not a popular liturgy either in or outside the Tang capital in the ensuing centuries after the Chinese Great Perfection came into existence in 663 ce, evidenced by its rare appearance in Chinese sources and its absence in the eighth-century anthology of liturgies titled The Paragons of Liturgical Scripts (Zhaiwanwen 齋琬文) .73”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [73]
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there are many Chinese documents pointing to the existence at Dunhuang of a type of chanting liturgy featuring the Great Perfection .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, Kūkai's prayer proper is liturgically much simpler than the Dunhuang cascading alternation between empowerments and prayers proper (Section F) .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A typical Great Perfection-rotation liturgy at Dunhuang is made of three modules, (1) the preparation stage where ritual instruments, ritual space, and ritual performers are set up, (2) the pronouncement and performance of a liturgical script, and (3) the long-playing chanting of the scripture mostly performed by two shifts of reciters taking turns .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In fact, we have not found any other Tibetan document that explicitly mentions a mass chanting ritual of the Unlimited Life, Hundred Thousand, or Great Perfection at Dunhuang .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Three latest datable ones state that the performance was on behalf of Zhang Chengfeng 張 承奉, the Dunhuang ruler who claimed that he was the emperor of Xihan Jinshanguo 西漢 金山國 (Golden Mountain Kingdom of the Western Han) between ca .910 and 914 .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > liturgical scriPts for sūtra-rotation
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [39]
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plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, when a sūtra-rotation liturgy was not imperially sponsored, the chanting usually did not feature the Great Perfection .27”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unfortunately, PT 999 does not explicitly mention it .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 45
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- The quote only partly states this claim. 3
In the paper
“PT 999 claims that “the Chinese and Tibetan versions of the Unlimited Life were copied in Shacu [Shazhou 沙州, i .e ., Dunhuang] as a ‘merit gift’ [sku yon] for the son of the gods Khri gtsugs lde brtsan .”14”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites PT 999 lines 1-2
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plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the sixth month of 813, a ritual arena for [reciting] the Buddhāvataṃsaka-sūtra was established in the Yong'an Monastery .Seventy-seven fascicles were lent out [to the Yong'an Monastery] .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Last, Kūkai's piece lacks any discernible military overtone and does not even attempt to invoke protective deities; instead, it is more concerned with the generation of merit and wisdom on behalf of the emperor .77”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [77]
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plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“BD 6359v/3 details a sūtra-rotation event that features a personalized set of sutras:”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Second, in terms of content, Kūkai's piece is more sophisticated, as he attempts to infuse elements of the Prajñāpāramitā discourse into his composition, 76 whereas no discernible effort of this kind can be found in the liturgical script at Dunhuang .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [76]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Great Perfection-rotation events at Dunhuang gave rise to three different types of document in the Dunhuang corpus:”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
““The two sanghas [i .e., the monks and nuns] of Shacu [i .e., Dunhuang] will dedicate [these sūtra copies] as a merit gift for prince 'Od srung, son of queen 'Phan, and as a gift [for] the households in the Shacu region and hold an offering feast .”22”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites PT 999, lines 5-7
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It consists of seven sūtra-lending registers, of which six are concerned with sūtra-rotation and only one is concerned with individual loans of manuscripts .24”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ma De, "Dunhuang wenshu Zhusi fujingli chuyi," 36-37
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, the Great Perfection is uniquely awash with epithets that carry the metaphor of kingship, such as the King of All Spells (yiqie zhouwang 一切呪王), Great King of Spells (dazhouwang 大 呪王), or King of Great Efficacious Spells (dashenzhou wang 大神呪王)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though the sponsor is on the front line and hence absent from the ritual scene, he joins in spirit the ritual arena, which is exalted with parallel prose in Section E”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The officiant, perhaps together with the audience chiming in, concludes the second module of the liturgy with a “benediction” (haowei 號尾) (Section H)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Then, the officiant switches to a vernacular register to pronounce a statement of intention in front of a ritual audience, which includes the sponsor (or his representative, in this case), participating monastics, lay public, and supernatural beings (Section B)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“PC 2765v/2 (=PT 1070v/2) contains a text titled “A Paean of the Merit (Generated from the Establishment of) Shengguang Monastery by Zhang khri sum rje””
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > WB
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The “Nine Tribes” (jiuxinghu) is a calque of Toquz Oghuz referring to the Uyghur Khaganate.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“instead, it builds on its unparalleled size with the claim that it is an unparalleled wisdom-spell (Skt .vidyā; Tib .rig sngags; mingzhou 明咒), a Sanskrit pun intended .66”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“With the audience in mind, the officiant switches back to parallel prose to “praise the virtue” (tande 嘆德) 47 of the sponsor-the Tibetan prime minister (Section C)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
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In the paper
“Next, the officiant connects the sponsor's situation with Buddhism by explaining the ritual logic: the sponsor seeks the power of the liturgy to safeguard him and his troops (Section D)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The pronouncement culminates with a zhuangyan performance that alternates between two acts of empowerment and three acts of praying (Section F)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Afterward, the officiant exits and the reciters enter the streaming ritual arena to start the long-playing sūtra chanting that could last from several days to several months, which constitutes the third module of the liturgy”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The officiant (ācārya) starts the liturgical pronouncement with an “opening invocation” (haotou 號頭), a set of verses in parallel prose (pianwen 駢文) that calls the attention of the Buddhas to the ritual scene and justifies the use of Buddhist ritual by explaining the mechanism of merit (Section A)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Nos .3, 4, 5, 6, and 9 provide the standard benediction mohe bore 摩訶般若 (Skt .mahāprajñā); no .10 uses yunyun 云云 (”et cetera”); nos .2, 7, and 8 omit this part”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Repeating these five epithets, the Great Perfection further boasts that the Buddhas in the past, present, and future, owing to this profound Great King of Spells, realized, realize, and will realize the Great Unsurpassed Perfect Awakening .62”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Great Perfection, T no. 220
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Note that the first and the last epithets do not appear in the same passages in the Hundred Thousand .63”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Kimura, Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā II
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this case, a Uyghur military force has been harassing the border region and causing economic loss, and the sponsor has decided to lead a campaign west to counteract the Uyghur offensive”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Hirai Shun'ei calculates that at least 1,987 Chinese-style scrolls of the Great Perfection found their way to different museums or collections .6”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hirai Shun'ei, "Dai hannyagyō," 12
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the Sūtras were a gift for the Tibetan emperor, meant to generate wisdom and merit so that the emperor, and all beings, might attain enlightenment by seeing, hearing, and worshipping them .”12”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dotson, "The Remains of the Dharma," 5
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“For the Tibetan Unlimited Life, in addition to more than 550 scrolls left in China, 8 there are about 1,345 shelfmarks that include copies or fragments of copies of this Tibetan sūtra held in the British Library, 9 and 1,951 in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . 10”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dotson, "Misspelling 'Buddha'," 135
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Schaik, "The Tibetan Dunhuang Manuscripts in China," 136 n .29
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hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For the Chinese Unlimited Life, the total number of the scrolls approximates 1,000 .11”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dunhuang xue dacidian, 704-5
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“not produced as a physical gift for the emperor or a type of local tribute, since the lode of manuscripts did not become the emperor's private possession and were kept in the custody of local institutions; the actual “gift” (yon) was in fact an abstract one, that is to say, the merit (Skt .puṇya) generated through the production of sūtra copies .13”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dotson, "Sūtras as Royal Gifts"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“the last three sūtras form a distinct group whose production was “commissioned for the Tibetan emperor Khri Gtsug lde brtsan (r .815-841) from the 820s to the 840s .” 5”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Dotson, "Misspelling 'Buddha'," 134
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“For the Hundred Thousand, Sam van Schaik estimates that there are about 14,000 large-format pothī leaves and less than 600 scrolls .7”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Sam van Schaik, "The Tibetan Dunhuang Manuscripts in China," 135-36
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, twenty caskets (nos .33-42, 44, 49, 52, 54-60) are not accounted for in this list (a complete set of the Great Perfection is, as a rule, made of sixty caskets), while three caskets (nos .51-53) are repeated .The gaps indicate that even an imperially sponsored sūtra-rotation event at Dunhuang was normally not large-scale or well-funded enough for the reciters to finish chanting the entire”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In chapter eighteen of the Hundred Thousand (or chapter twenty-nine, part five of the Great Perfection), the Buddha again reminds the devas that they should even protect those who only have a pro forma relationship with the Prajñāpāramitā”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [58]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, the ritual arena refers to a consecrated space for a sūtra-rotation performance, with the word “streaming” or “long-playing” symbolizing the continuous ritual chanting performed by two shifts of reciters who took turns ascending the ritual arena .33”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“On the one hand, for the sponsor, the costlier the performance of the chanting is, the more unmediated power the text is perceived to contain; on the other hand, for the ritual audience, the magnitude of the ritual signals the socio-political status of the sponsor .70”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [70]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“documents generated by a smaller-scale sūtra-rotation liturgy were less likely to be retained over time and eventually to be brought to the “Library Cave,” which in turn explains why sūtra-rotation sponsored by ordinary locals seldom appears in Table 1 .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Great Perfection-rotation as a royal ritual has an Indian pedigree, or at least a perceived one in the eyes of East Asian Buddhists .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Although several Chinese scholars have looked into Great Perfection-related documents from different perspectives, no one has attempted to reconstruct the Great Perfection-rotation liturgy by piecing together the related documents .23”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fang Guangchang, Dunhuang fojiao jinglu jijiao
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Zheng Binglin, "Wantang Wudai Dunhuang diqu"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Hao Chunwen, Tang houqi Wudai Songchu Dunhuang sengni de shehui shenghuo
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plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pledge becomes a recurring theme in the expanded versions of the Prajñāpāramitā .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this case, the town prefect and his wife commissioned a sūtra-rotation liturgy that was small-scale enough for the monks from the Lingshu Monastery to finish in one day .Since the chosen sūtras were commonplace at Dunhuang and readily available for the monastery, there was no need to borrow sūtra copies from other monasteries .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As such this Prajñāpāramitā is the Great Efficacious Spell; as such this Prajñāpāramitā is the Great Wisdom Spell; as such this Prajñāpāramitā is the Unsurpassed Spell; as such this Prajñāpāramitā is the Matchless Spell; as such this Prajñāpāramitā is the King of All Spells .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [61]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of the Great Perfection-rotation, because the scripture was too voluminous for a single monastery to provide all the reciters needed and few monasteries possessed the entire 600 fascicles, most of the fascicles had to be lent out beforehand to the monastic reciters, who were drafted from different local monasteries .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When the first Prajñāpāramitā text was composed in the first century before or after the Common Era, it had already been established in the nikāya/āgama scriptures that the Buddha was not only preaching to his human interlocutors, but also to supernatural beings, including various devas, yakṣas, nāgas, etc .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Great Perfection, though made of meaningful words, can be employed as a spell .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 774 ce, Amoghavajra (Bukong 不空; 705-774), one of the three most prominent Tantric masters in the Tang, successfully petitioned the court for the establishment of two “ritual arenas” in his monastery .Twenty-one disciples of his were allowed to serve as “recitationmonks” (chisong seng 持誦僧) to “regularly rotate and chant [the scriptures] for the sake of the state” 常為國轉讀 .30”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Amoghavajra, "Qing yu Xingshan dangyuan liang daochang gezhi chisongseng zhi yishou"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Though a sūtrarotation liturgy could use the same procedure and feature non-Great Perfection scriptures as ritual instruments, the Great Perfection was the scripture of choice when the sponsor had a political connection with rulership .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The discrepancy between rhetoric and practice is partially addressed by the Hundred Thousand itself, which promises that the apotropaic power of the sūtra works the same for those who do not study the scriptures (see my analysis below) .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Abstract
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this sense, liturgical texts matter in that they help us discover, gauge, and make sense of the gap between rhetoric and practice .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible that in India the compilation of the expanded versions of the Prajñāpāramitā, such as the 18,000-lined, 25,000-lined, and 100,000-lined versions, was liturgically motivated in the first place . In each case, the content of a smaller Prajñāpāramitā was expanded at the hands of the ritualist(s) to a size commensurate with the social status of their clients”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The genre ganmon 願文 in medieval Japan is derived from zhaiwen in China; both have similar overall structure and ritual functions”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This script contains the seven sections-or at least the first six sections 45 -that have been identified and carefully studied by Stephen Teiser .46”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Teiser
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also possible that ranhou 然後 marks the start of an omitted third prayer proper, instead of the omission of the benediction”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“After finishing the translation of the Great Perfection in 663 ce, Xuanzang told the celebrating crowd in the Yuhua 玉華 Monastery that “this is the tome that keeps the country at peace; it is a great treasure for men and gods alike .”48”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Huili慧立, Datang Dacien si Sanzang fashi zhuan
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Enomoto convincingly argues that the ryakudoku performance was invented at the earliest after the twelfth century”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Enomoto Eiichi 榎本栄一, "Kyōten no dendoku ni tsuite"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sometimes they even offer a lens to see through the rhetoric, especially when it comes to the scriptures that routinely employ allegories, paradoxes, and hyperboles .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > [Section A]
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The Sūtra on the Prajñāpāramitā as the Way of Practice (Daoxing borejing 道行般若經; hereafter Way of Practice), translated in 179 ce by Lokakṣema .49”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Karashima Seishi, ed., A Critical Edition of Lokakṣema's Translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The chanting of the Great Perfection was performed again in 725 and 735 and became an annual performance at Daianji 大安寺 in 737”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Aoiki, ed., Shoku nihongi
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is also possible that the chanting involved an array of texts, including both the Diamond Sūtra and the Great Perfection”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“As Teiser demonstrates, the basic meaning of the verb is “to ornament someone with merit,” and the function of the act is either to shore up the guardian deities by infusing them with merit or to fortify a human by decorating him or her with merit”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Stephen Teiser, "Ornamenting the Departed: Notes on the Language of Chinese Buddhist Ritual Texts"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In medieval China and at Dunhuang, the composition of zhaiwen was not deemed a serious intellectual activity and hence was mostly carried out by unknown monks”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this sense, the long-playing chanting of the fascicles becomes the most straightforward way to harness the spell and redirect the magic power to more specific matters .67”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“in medieval Japan, ganmon was considered a worthy genre, whose composers include famous writers such as Ōe no Masahira 大江匡 衡, Ōe no Asatsuna 大江朝綱, Sugawara no Michizane 菅原道真, etc”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In Chinese liturgical texts, this term can be used to refer to both the opening praise of the Buddha (Section A) or the praise of a ritual participant (Section C)”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Teiser, "The Literary Style of Dunhuang Healing Liturgies"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Karashima's reconstruction of the proper names in the text has convincingly demonstrated that the Way of Practice was translated from a text written in Gāndhārī, instead of Sanskrit”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Karashima
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The term Bore (Prajñāpāramitā) here likely refers to the Great Perfection, which contains the Diamond Sūtra as its 577th fascicle”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“After the An Lushan Rebellion in 755 ce and the ensuing rapid decline of the Tang Empire's control of Eastern Turkestan, the Tibetan Empire and Uyghur Khaganate clashed in the region constantly and battled for dominance until 822/823 ce, when the Tibetan Empire, Uyghur Khaganate, and Tang Empire decided to conclude a peace treaty between the three”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > WB
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Iwao Kazushi 岩尾一史, "Kodai Chibetto teiikoku no gaikō to sangoku kaimei no seiritsu"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite the literal meaning of ganmon (lit ., “prayer text”), ganmon, just like zhaiwen, is much more complicated than a prayer proper, which normally constitutes the last section of a ganmon”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, the Great Perfection tops the already over-the-top rhetoric of the Prajñāpāramitā by metaphors of kingship and positions itself as a royal ritual instrument of unparalleled size and unmatched potency, in keeping with the status of a king”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The concerns of the court in medieval Japan were mostly focused on natural phenomena (such as rainfall, earthquakes, anomalous weather, etc .); the Great Perfection-rotation as an instrument of rain-making was particu- larly important”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > References
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Sasaki Reishin 佐佐木令信, "Kodai ni okeru ki'u to Bukkyō: Kyūchū midokyō wo megutte"
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
The Great Perfection was part of the program in liturgical script no.2.
“it seems safe to assume that the Great Perfection was part of the program in no .2”
The paper relies on this without support.
The liturgy provided psychological relief to the public.
“the possible psychological relief that the liturgy provided to the public”
The paper relies on this without support.
The “Nine Tribes” (jiuxinghu) is a calque of Toquz Oghuz referring to the Uyghur Khaganate.
“the “Nine Tribes” (jiuxinghu 九姓)-a calque of Toquz Oghuz referring to Uyghur Khaganate”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
“In total, twenty caskets (nos .33-42, 44, 49, 52, 54-60) are not accounted for in this list”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
“For Lian (i .e., Liantai si 蓮臺寺), caskets nos .51-53 consigned to Faguang 法光 .”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
“For the merit-field of the town prefect's wife, we "rotated" the Avalokiteśvara Sūtra ten times, the Heart Sūtra 108 times, and the Unlimited Life 108 times, and [made] 2,000 clay icons of the Buddhas”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > WB
“為節兒娘 福田轉：金剛經七遍，觀音經十遍，般若心經一百八遍，無(量)壽呪一百八遍，印沙佛一千”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
“For the merit-field of the town prefect's wife, we "rotated" the Avalokiteśvara Sūtra ten times, the Heart Sūtra 108 times, and the Unlimited Life 108 times”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > WB
“為節兒娘 福田轉：金剛經七遍，觀音經十遍，般若心經一百八遍，無(量)壽呪一百八遍”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
“The pronouncement culminates with a zhuangyan performance that alternates between two acts of empowerment and three acts of praying (Section F) .”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > Additional information
“[Section F: Third Empowerment] [Lastly,] may myriads of good deeds be empowered [by the remaining merit] .萬善莊嚴！”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > sūtra-lenDing registers
“In the first month of the year 814, [the rotation] was completed in the Cave Monastery .Thirty-six fascicles of the Buddhāvataṃsaka-sūtra have been regathered by a monk named Lingzhe" 巳年六月，永安寺置花嚴道場，付經 七十七卷。至未年正月”
§ "By the Power of the Perfection of Wisdom": The > WB
“| 12 WB32(3)1/7 | 815 (未年正月十 | State |”
Citations
Cites
The publisher hasn’t deposited this paper’s reference list.
Research works printed but not linked: 11
- Karashima, A Critical Edition, 57-128 .
- Karashima, A Critical Edition, 57-60 .
- Karashima, A Critical Edition, 59 .
- Karashima, A Critical Edition, 59 .
- Karashima, A Critical Edition, 64) 55 . 是善男子、善女人等若隨軍旅交陣戰時，至心念誦如是般若波羅蜜多，不為刀杖之所傷殺，所對怨 敵，皆起慈心。設欲中傷，自然退敗。喪命軍旅，終無是處！(Great Perfection, T no . 220, 5:568a25-28) . See Hundred Thousand, in bKa' 'gyur dpe bsdur ma (Beijing: Krung go'i Bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, 2006-2009), 18:562-63;
- For example, the Heart Sūtra adds a mantra that represents the Prajñāpāramitā at its end . "Therefore, the Prajñāpāramitā is to be known as the 'Great Wisdom Spell' (mahavidyā), the 'Supreme Wisdom Spell' (anuttaravidyā), and the 'Matchless Wisdom Spell' (asamasamavidyā) . It dispels all suffering; for it is true and not false, the Prajñāpāramitā spell is spoken . The spell goes as follows: gate gate pāragate pārasamgate bodhi svāhā" 故知般若波羅蜜是大明呪，無上明呪，無等等明呪，能除一切苦，眞實不虚，故説般若波羅蜜呪。 即説呪曰：竭帝竭帝 波羅竭帝 波羅僧竭帝 菩提 僧莎呵 (Mohe bore boluomi damingzhou jing 摩訶般若波羅 蜜大明呪經, T no . 250, 8:847c24-c28) . For the issues concerning this passage in the Heart Sūtra, see Jan Nattier "The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?" Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 15 .2 (1992): 211-13 n .
- The orality of Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, which has a long history in China and is beyond the scope of this paper, stands in sharp contrast to the highly developed materiality of dhāraṇīs in China . For the practical traditions of writing down, inscribing, and physically embodying a dhāraṇī, see Paul Copp, The Body Incantatory: Spells and the Ritual Imagination in Medieval Chinese Buddhism (New York: Columbia Univ . Press, 2014), 29 .
- 令京城諸寺釋門衆，轉大般若、孔雀王等經，精勤止雨用 (T no . 2120, 52:854a18-a19) . For the con- nections between the Mahāmāyūrī-vidyārājñī and Chinese kingship constructed by Amoghavajra, see Charles D . Orzech, "Metaphor, Translation, and the Construction of Kingship in The Scripture for Humane Kings and the Mahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī Sūtra," Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie 13 (2002): 76-80 .
- Scholars generally point to an entry under the third month of the third year of the Daihō 大宝 period (703 ce) of Emperor Monmu in the Shoku Nihongi as the earliest evidence for an instance of Great Perfection-rotation in Japan, where it reads, "in the third month, . . . [the court] ordered the four major monasteries to recite the Great Per- fection and ordain one hundred people" 三月 . . . 詔四大寺讀大般若経，度一百人; see Aoiki, ed ., Shoku Nihongi, 1:66 . It is not clear to what extent this refers to a formal public liturgy; in fact, the compounds "rotation-chanting" (tendoku 転読) and "sūtra-rotation" (tenkyō 転経) are not used here at all . The chanting of the Great Perfection was performed again in 725 and 735 and became an annual performance at Daianji 大安寺 in 737 (Aoiki, ed ., Shoku nihongi, 2:158, 2:290, and 2:312) . Hence, it might be the case that a Great Perfection-rotation liturgy took form in Japan in the 730s . The so-called "cursory reading" (ryakudoku 略読) of the Great Perfection, which involves choreographed performance of hurling up a foldable fascicle (orihon 折本) and chanting only the chapter title and/ or a few lines, is a Japanese invention; see Mochizuki Shinkō 望月信亨, ed ., Bukkyō daijiten 仏教大辞典 (Tokyo:
- Sekai seiten kankō kyōkai, 1954-1963), 3933b . Enomoto convincingly argues that the ryakudoku performance was invented at the earliest after the twelfth century; see Enomoto Eiichi 榎本栄一, "Kyōten no dendoku ni tsuite" 経典 の転読について, Tōyōgaku kenkyū 27 (1992): 45-58 .
- The concerns of the court in medieval Japan were mostly focused on natural phenomena (such as rainfall, earthquakes, anomalous weather, etc .); the Great Perfection-rotation as an instrument of rain-making was particu- larly important; see Sasaki Reishin 佐佐木令信, "Kodai ni okeru ki'u to Bukkyō: Kyūchū midokyō wo megutte" 古 代における祈雨と仏教：宮中御読経をめぐって, Ōtani gakuhō 50 .2 (1970): 65-88 .
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Sorted by citations
Brewster, E. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780195393521-0270
Metadata
- Authors
- Ding, Y.
- Corresponding author
- Ding, Yi
- Venue
- Journal of the American Oriental Society
- Publisher
- American Oriental Society
- Published
- 2021-09-19
- Volume
- 139
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 0003-0279 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-2289
- OpenAlex
- W2983142089
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 2.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of the American Oriental Society (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Historical, Religious, and Philosophical Studies
- Keywords
- Dunhuang manuscripts, merit-making, Prajñāpāramitā literature, Buddhist liturgy
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