The DOI matches its Crossref record, with a small difference in title or year; 45 of the 49 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 26 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Infidel or Paganus?: The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran
Open accessAbstract
This article explores the meaning of the root k-f-r in the Quran, questioning the practice of translating the noun kāfir as “infidel.” It argues for a distinction between the idiomatic phrasal verb kafara bi-, which does mean to reject or disbelieve, and the simple intransitive verb kafara and its deverbal nouns, which are used in the Quran in a large number of different ways. This polysemy is explored through contextual readings of Quran passages. It is argued that the noun kāfir, unlike the verb kafara, is used only with regard to adherents of traditional polytheism and is not deployed in an unmodified way with regard to Jews and Christians. The possible influence on the Arabic kafara of Greek and Latin conceptions is also broached.
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50 Own interpretation · 46 No basis given · 23 Sources not found · 5 Not checked yet · 5 Own result
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In the paper
“The root is also clearly associated in the Quran with polytheism.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“That the dispute was over Muḥammad's monotheism versus Arabian polytheism is demonstrated by Ṣād 38:4-5”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
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In the paper
“In al-Ḥadīd 57:20 the broken plural refers to rustic farmers”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the simple intransitive verb kafara and the nouns deriving from it as used in the Quran are characterized by polysemy”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Monotheists are for the most part contrasted in the Quran with kāfirūn as a noun, as two different sociological and theological communities.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A key attribute of the kāfir, as we have seen, is that such a person is damned to hell.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is implied in the Quran that the pagans made Allah the father of the three goddesses.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“is one meaning of the root k-f-r.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They swear by God that they did not say it, but they indeed uttered the word of kufr, and kafarū after their acceptance of the monotheistic tradition (islāmihim).”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“for responding incorrectly to God's proverbs”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This phrasal verb is not polysemous in the Quran for it always means to deny or reject.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The active participle kāfir most often functions as a noun rather than as a verbal noun in that it does not take an object”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The assemblage of those who kafarū replied”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only are such believers committed polytheists but they are also militant”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The simple verb kafara has a much wider range of signification, but it does occasionally overlap in meaning with the phrasal verb”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to the Quran, the Meccan pagans acknowledged Allah as the creator-God”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Quran shows positive attitudes throughout to Christians and al-Baqara 2:62 admits Christians to heaven”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Quran complains of Jewishpagan syncretism in Medina and of the wish of that faction of Jews that his community should revert to the worship of the old gods.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pagans with whom Muḥammad debated are depicted as denying the bodily resurrection and the Eschaton”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“is underlined in al-Baqara 2:257”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“those who kafarū dismissed the Prophet's narratives about the monotheistic prophets”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While they are not accused of disbelieving, they are, however, liars and wrongdoers, dishonest and workers of evil”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“God has caused you to love faith, rendering it beautiful in your hearts, and he has caused you to abhor impiety (kufr) and ungodly behavior (fusūq) and rebellion”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The verb kafara, however, is more fluid and is sometime applied to monotheists.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“al-Baqara 2:257 says that those who kafarū had taken the deity or idol Ṭāghūt for their patron instead of God.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In al-Shuʿarāʾ 26:18, this term is put into the mouth of Pharaoh when he is clearly scolding Moses for his ingratitude.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
boostedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Committing it, according to the Quran, is a mortal sin.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, in al-Kāfirūn 109:6, Muḥammad addresses the kāfirūn, saying that he does not worship what they worship and that they have their religion and he has his.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, in the same sura God promises Jesus (3:55) that his followers, the Christians, will always be superior to the pagans right until the judgment day.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Āl ʿImrām 3:151 menaces these pagans with hellfire for having made God part of a pantheon (ashrakū).”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These are discernible if we look at the parallelisms, synonyms, and antonyms with which quranic verses surround this noun.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I have argued a further distinction, one between the verb kafara (which can be used with regard to any group of human beings, including monotheistic communities) and the plural deverbal noun kāfirūn.This noun refers to a reified social group, that is, the pagans.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is argued that the noun kāfir, unlike the verb kafara, is used only with regard to adherents of traditional polytheism and is not deployed in an unmodified way with regard to Jews and Christians.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Gideon Avni has underlined that the archaeological record and literary sources make clear”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gideon Avni
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Like Paul of Tarsus, Muḥammad had a mission to the gentiles, with the difference that Muḥammad himself sprang from a pagan population.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The great goddess Allāt was generally identified with Athena, al-ʿUzza with Aphrodite, and Manat with Tykhe, though such identifications varied and were not uniform.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“for which I believe the Quran uses the loanshift ummī”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where it lacks a preposition, kāfir should be seen as deriving from the polysemous simple intransitive verb kafara”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“it is possible that the Arabic phrasal verb iftarā ʿalā is a calque on the Greek βλασφημία here; it is being equated with kafara.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Matt 12:31
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since it is allowed that they have faith, they are not unbelievers strictly speaking”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Ṭāghūt is a loan from Geʿez”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“He saw the root's different senses as issuing from the notion”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ibn Manẓūr
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“What if we translated al-Baqara 2:101 this way?”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
hedged- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper may give no reason why it holds. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is not, as with the distinction in the active participle between kāfir and believer (muʾmin), fixed or black-and-white or serving to demarcate reified social groups”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The passage does not refer to the rejection of God or of monotheism, but to a set of beliefs and practices that have their origin in angelic inspiration but were then perverted for satanic purposes.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The reason given in 2 Pet 2:6 for the calamity that befell the people of Sodom and Gomorrah is that they lived impious lives (ἀσέβεσιν), which seems roughly the meaning of kufr in Q 66:10.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is a key lexical difference between a denier of God and an affirmer of God who gets God wrong.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The verb kafara and the abstract noun kufr rather exist on a spectrum and can characterize Muḥammad's believers, at least briefly, when they make the wrong moral decision.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plainconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Muḥammad thus lived and worked in Christian societies and would have had a fair experience of contemporary Christian practice and belief.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [49]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The Quran's statements about Jews, Christians, and pagans reflect actual social groups and historical events in Muhammad's environment.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Christians are not kāfirūn under ordinary circumstances, just as they are not doomed to hell under ordinary circumstances.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“historical linguistics can often offer useful insights.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites W. A. Saleh
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There is an admission that the pagans have a religion, but it is simply castigated as a false one”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This passage is hypothetical and hyperbolic, warning the biblical communities that they are not indispensable, but not categorizing them as kāfirūn”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“But kāfirīn bihā, taking an oblique object, is a phrasal verbal noun.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [50]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Here kufr is equated with impiety”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > rebellion and libertinisM
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Further, the Quran (al-Rūm 30:1-6) evinces hope that the Roman emperor Herakleios would defeat his Iranian foes and identifies that prophesied victory as the triumph of God himself”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Hārūt and Mārūt are two of the Zoroastrian celestial spirits, Haurvatāt and Ameretāt.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“As I read the text, the teaching of the angels itself is not being condemned here.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [42]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Fred Donner has argued persuasively, in my view, that Muḥammad's movement was ecumenical, including nonconvert Jews and Christians, and that righteous Jews and Christians clearly were not categorized as kāfirūn”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Fred Donner
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is likely that for the remaining pagans in the sixth and seventh centuries, Allah was simply the chief of the gods, by analogy to Zeus.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The demons were guilty of putting otherwise inoffensive teachings to evil purposes, turning them into black magic, so that they kafarū”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > blaspheMy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [36]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Belief in polytheistic religion is not, properly speaking, disbelief but the wrong sort of belief, from the point of view of the Quran.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > peasants and polytheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“This principle was reaffirmed by Justinian (r.527-565) in his Code (1.5.19), which body of law applied to Arabic speakers in the empire in Muḥammad's own era.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Justinian
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Code (1.5.19)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“TheQuran does not refer to these Mariolaters as Christians, but is apparently describing a faction of Christianity that held that Mary and Jesus were gods, possibly having assimilated them to the Arab goddess Allāt and to one of the male North Arabian gods, respectively.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, when some of Muḥammad's believers declined to come out of Medina and defend the city at Uḥud, they had committed kufr (Āl ʿImrān 3:167) or shown bad faith on that occasion, but it would be nonsensical to call them infidels.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this it differs from the noun kāfir, which refers to a person who must change (i.e., convert) in order to escape damnation.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If this sect was a Nabataean matriarchal tradition that identified Mary with the goddess Allāt, it may well have exalted Mary above the other two.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“My finding of substantial polysemy in the root k-f-r, however, also suggests that in many instances the best translation will derive from context, and that derivatives should not be rendered uniformly.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If, moreover, the Quran is speaking of a pagan-Christian sect in sura al-Māʾida (5) rather than of mainstream Christianity, that would help resolve the tension in the text between its pluralistic soteriology for righteous Christians (al-Baqara 2:62) and its use in al-Māʾida 5:73 of k-f-r to describe theologically extreme followers of Jesus.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This verse rebuts a theology that Jesus and Mary were immaterial and therefore did not need bodily nourishment and that Jesus was immortal and incapable of actually dying.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While it is not impossible that Arabic independently invented a connection between farmers and polytheists, Occam's razor would suggest that we instead posit that Arabic was influenced by late antique Roman Christian usage, which was embedded in imperial laws applying to Arabophone citizens of the empire.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This connotation has parallels with the Syriac use of the root, though the polysemy of the Arabic terms derived from this root is so great as to argue against seeing it solely through the lens of Syriac Christian texts.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where the root k-f-r has to do with impiety or impious, immoral actions, it may be a loanshift for the Greek ἀσέβεια or impiety, a term often applied to pagans by Christian polemicists in late antiquity.”
§ Infidel or Paganus? The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran > doCtrinal sins of the Monotheists
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
The chronological order of Quranic suras, such as al-Māʾida being very late, is sufficiently known to date Muhammad's encounters.
“since such beliefs are not mentioned until the very late sura al-Māʾida.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Quran's statements about Jews, Christians, and pagans reflect actual social groups and historical events in Muhammad's environment.
“Muḥammad thus lived and worked in Christian societies and would have had a fair experience of contemporary Christian practice and belief.”
Citations
Cites
The City of God against the Pagans
Augustine, A. (1998) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511802300.005 · Cited by 763
Imperialism and Jewish Society
(2009) · doi:10.1515/9781400824854 · Cited by 360
Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World
Andrade, N. J. (2013) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511997808 · Cited by 312
Linguistic Borrowing in Bilingual Contexts
Field, F., & Comrie, B. (2002) · Studies in Language Companion Series · doi:10.1075/slcs.62 · Cited by 266
Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium
Kaldis, W. P. (2003) · History: Reviews of New Books · doi:10.1080/03612759.2003.10527537 · Cited by 224
Muhammad and the believers: at the origins of Islam
(2010) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.48-0802 · Cited by 156
Sheridan, J. A., & Bowersock, G. S. (1991) · The Classical World · doi:10.2307/4351038 · Cited by 152
Muhammad and the Believers at the Origins of Islam
(2011) · doi:10.35632/ajis.v28i3.1244 · Cited by 140
Public Disputation, Power, and Social Order in Late Antiquity.
Barnes, T. D., & Lim, R. (1996) · The American Historical Review · doi:10.2307/2170198 · Cited by 137
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- T. S. Cason, "Creature Features: Monstrosity and the Construction of Human Identity in the Testament of Solomon," Catholic Biblical Quarterly 77.2 (2015): 263-79;
- Saint John Chrysostom, The Homilies on the Epistles of St. Paul, the Apostle, to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon (Oxford: J.H. Parker, 1854), 81-83.
- period, P. Fredriksen, Paul: The Pagans' Apostle (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 2017), 45-48;
- Ch. Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity: Topography and Social Conflict (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2006); Shahîd, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century; Ph. Jenkins, Jesus Wars: How Four Patriarchs, Three Queens, and Two Emperors Decided What Christians Would Believe for the Next 1,500 Years (New York: HarperOne, 2010), chap.
- T. Sizgorich, Violence and Belief in Late Antiquity: Militant Devotion in Christianity and Islam (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), chap. 4.
- A. Kateusz, "Collyridian Déjà Vu: The Trajectory of Redaction of the Markers of Mary's Liturgical Leadership," Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion 29.2 (2013): 75-92.
- M. Sághy and E. M. Schoolman (Budapest: Central European Univ. Press, 2018), 105-18.
- J. J. O'Donnell, "Paganus," Classical Folia 31 (1977): 163-69;
- A. Cameron, The Last Pagans of Rome (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2011), chap. 1; Remus, "End of 'Paganism'?," 198-200.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
‘It was made to appear to them so’: the crucifixion, Jews and Sasanian war propaganda in the Qur’ān
Cole, J. R. I. (2021) · Religion · doi:10.1080/0048721x.2021.1909170 · Cited by 9
Self-citationSemantic decomposition of four Quranic words
Durie, M. (2022) · Russian Journal of Linguistics · doi:10.22363/2687-0088-30779 · Cited by 6
Worship (dīn), Monotheism (islām), and the Qurʾān’s Cultic Decalogue
Goudarzi, M. (2023) · Journal of the International Qur’anic Studies Association · doi:10.1515/jiqsa-2023-0006 · Cited by 5
THE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE OF NON-MUSLIM LEADERS IN INDONESIAN MUSLIM MAJORITY COMMUNITIES
Wakhid, A. A., Razimi, M. S. B. A., Mukri, M., et al. (2021) · Akademika : Jurnal Pemikiran Islam · doi:10.32332/akademika.v26i2.3753 · Cited by 4
The Rise of the Gentile Prophet in Mecca
Lindstedt, I. (2023) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004687134_006
Metadata
- Authors
- Cole, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cole, Juan
- Venue
- Journal of the American Oriental Society
- Publisher
- American Oriental Society
- Published
- 2021-09-19
- Volume
- 140
- Issue
- 3
- ISSN
- 0003-0279 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-2289
- OpenAlex
- W3088230346
- Cited by
- 15
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3
- FWCI
- 25.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of the American Oriental Society (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Historical and Linguistic Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Qur’anic Interpretation Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Linguistics, Cultural Analysis
- Keywords
- Quran, kafir, Arabic vocabulary, polysemy, Quran translation, phrasal verbs, pagans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Infidel or Paganus?: The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.3.0615
- The paper
- Cole, J. (2021). Infidel or Paganus?: The Polysemy of kafara in the Quran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.140.3.0615
