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Aesthetic of Brightness in Han Mirror Inscriptions
Open accessAbstract
This article analyzes inscriptions cast on bronze mirrors of the Han dynasty (202 bce–220 ce) to trace how the material property of brightness became emphatically aestheticized through an expressive rhetoric of radiance and brilliance, illumination and reflection. It argues that specular brightness as a defining feature of Han mirrors was exploited by artisans to attract potential buyers. In contrast to erudite philosophers who exclusively used the logograph ming 明 to modify the literary mirror in classical texts, artisans promoted their products by featuring terms such as guang 光, zhao 昭, hui 輝, yao 耀, qing 清, and jiao 皎 in rhythmic proses of various lengths. Examining how artisans advertised their high-tin bronzes as embodiments of solar and lunar light, the study shows that specular brilliance was linked to a range of cosmetic, moral, and religious powers, from illuminating the individual and the physical world to revealing the invisible world, whether of human emotions or demons. The article further argues that the inscribed verses, while often formulaic and clichéd, were neither mere decorations nor generic blessings. In fact, they meaningfully structured and communicated a particular aesthetic appreciation shared by both Han artisans and users. This well-developed semantic fascination with specular brightness thus marks these metal discs as a distinctive genre of the decorative arts in early imperial China.
Overview
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TL;DR
The article argues that Han bronze mirror inscriptions turned the physical shine of mirrors into a shared aesthetic of brightness, using a wider vocabulary of illumination than transmitted philosophical texts and linking mirrors to the sun and moon. It shows how this rhetoric supported cosmetic, moral, and apotropaic functions and reveals differences between artisan/popular inscriptions and elite textual traditions.
Key findings
Han artisans advertised mirrors by emphasizing brightness with terms such as *guang*, *zhao*, *hui*, *yao*, *qing*, and *jiao*, not only *ming*, in rhythmic inscriptions from the second century BCE onward; examples include a 15 BCE mirror by Feng and later dated mirrors from 167 and 174 CE. Inscriptions repeatedly compare mirror radiance to sunlight and moonlight, describing mirrors as encountering solar light, possessing moonlike brightness, or being as bright as both luminaries, and these claims are tied to cosmetic reflection, moral discernment, and protection against evil. The paper argues that formulaic inscriptions were not merely decorative or generic blessings but communicated a meaningful aesthetic appreciation shared by makers and users, while also showing that transmitted texts and excavated inscriptions diverge: philosophers mainly used *ming*, whereas inscriptions stress solar/lunar embodiment and are more ambiguous about apotropaic reflection. Technical inscriptions mention smelting terms and the three metals copper, tin, and lead, and the *Kaogong ji* formula for mirrors is discussed alongside Zheng Xuan’s comment that adding tin makes bronze hard, white, and bright; Karlgren’s earlier study translated 257 Han inscriptions, while the article draws on a much larger later corpus.
Methods
The study is a qualitative historical and philological analysis of Han mirror inscriptions, comparing excavated epigraphic texts with transmitted philosophical, medical, poetic, and Daoist sources. It uses antiquarian catalogs, archaeological reports, and later databases of Han inscriptions, including Karlgren’s foundational collection and subsequent Chinese and Japanese compilations, and examines inscription wording alongside mirror types, dates, provenance, and decorative patterns. The main analysis is close reading of terms for brightness, light, reflection, purity, and smelting, supported by references to technical studies of bronze composition and polishing.
Limitations
The paper states no formal limitations section. Stated in the text: the reason for dark-environment smelting is unclear; the apotropaic function is not explicitly described in inscriptions as reflecting inauspicious entities; no trace of the Qin Palace “seeing-through” mirror story appears in Han inscriptions or received literature; and inscriptions rarely mention the moon as a light source or artificial lighting. Evident from the text: the argument relies heavily on interpretive readings of formulaic and sometimes ambiguous phrases, the corpus is not systematically quantified for all claims, and evidence for user reception comes mainly from the inscriptions themselves rather than independent documentation.
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144 Sources not found · 88 Own interpretation · 24 No basis given · 11 Own result · 4 Not checked yet
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second century bce , mirror artisans began to advertise the quality of ming by coining and inscribing commercial-like slogans to lure prospective clients.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Rests on an assumption: Han mirror buyers valued specular brightness and were influenced by inscriptions that advertised it.
In the paper
“Occasionally, the metallic colorshuang bai 黃白 (yellow and white)-are used as metonyms to designate smelted copper and tin. 43”
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In the paper
“These experimental studies show that a mercury-tin amalgam was likely the correct formula to form a thin and silvery coating on the surfaces of Han mirrors.”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In many inscriptions, the scribe juxtaposed ming and guang to repeatedly highlight a mirror's luster.”
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In the paper
“'I made this bright mirror by secretively smelting the three metallic notes' 吾作明 鏡,幽湅三商 , proclaims one late Eastern Han mirror. 40”
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In the paper
“Furthermore, the Eastern Han inscriptions inform us about the basic metallurgical formula.”
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In the paper
“At times, the artisans would foreground the lustrous characteristic of the ore itself: 'The interior [of the mirror] is glowing, bright, and clear; [I] smelted the lustrous ore, and acquired its quintessence' 内而光,明而靑,湅石華,下之菁 . 45”
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In the paper
“According to the inscription on a TLV mirror of the first century ce , the artisan 'carved, engraved and smelted the mirror to embody the quintessence of the sun and the moon' 雕刻冶鏡日月精 . 84”
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In the paper
“However, this proposed usage of jian finds no equivalent example in contemporary Qin or Han texts, in which jian refers exclusively to the act of optical seeing.”
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“At least three other Han poetic examples link the beauty of jiao to the moon. 72”
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These words appear to be largely synonymous with one another, and each of them also connotes a meaning with nuanced differences.”
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In the paper
“Similar to its usage in the transmitted literature, the term ming as a modifier frequently occurred in Han mirror inscriptions.”
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In the paper
“One of the earliest extant examples (Fig. 2), excavated from Linzi 臨淄 , Shandong, boldly states, 'This mirror is truly bright' 此鏡甚明 . 17 Its small seal script and grass-leaf motif securely date the mirror to the second half of the second century bce”
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“On a triangle-rimmed mirror decorated with deities and beasts, a typical late Eastern Han pattern, the anonymous artisan claims, 'I made this bright mirror that is superbly fine' 吾作明竟甚大好 .”
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In the paper
“In this case, the adverb shen 甚 accentuates the mirror's brilliance.”
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In the paper
“Among all the words of illumination inscribed on Han mirrors, the most ubiquitous is ming or brightness.”
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In the paper
“The artisan would even describe his mirror as rare and extraordinary because of the quality of its shine: 'I made this bright mirror that is superbly and uniquely extraordinary' 吾作明鏡甚獨奇 .”
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In the paper
“Undoubtedly, the majority of these inscriptions are versified idioms that appear formulaic and cliché,”
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In the paper
“The statement 'This bright mirror made by Mr. Zhu satisfies and pleases the user' 朱氏明竟快人意 expresses the pleasurable experience evoked by the mirror's luminosity.”
What the sources say
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In the paper
“In contrast to erudite philosophers who exclusively used the logograph ming 明 to modify the literary mirror in classical texts, artisans promoted their products by featuring terms such as guang 光 , zhao 昭 , hui 輝 , yao 耀 , qing 清 , and jiao 皎 in rhythmic proses of various lengths.”
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In the paper
“When the word order is reversedming guang -a new compound with a subtly different meaning is formed, as seen on a mirror unearthed from the Lu'an 六安 region in Anhui: '[The mirror] as radiant and lustrous as beautiful jade is made to produce bright glow' 美玉昭華,以爲 明光 . 33 Here, ming guang becomes a noun to refer to a lustrous radiance and beauty that is comparable to that of fine jade.”
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In the paper
“While the compound word ming jing (bright mirror) prevails in the transmitted texts of the Warring States and Han periods, its appearance in inscriptions was sporadic.”
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In the paper
“These writings do not hesitate to extol the virtues of how the artisans mined, extracted, and alloyed the ores to produce speculum metal and to underscore their indispensable roles in achieving specular brightness.”
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In the paper
“Mirror inscriptions from the first century ce onward recurrently referred to the technical act of extracting metals from ores as yuan lian 淵湅 (deeply smelt), you lian 幽湅 (darkly smelt), xuan lian 玄湅 (dimly smelt), qing lian 清湅 (purely smelt), and he lian 合湅 (smelt together). The most common is you lian :”
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In the paper
“For unknown reasons, however, this last process of mirror making is scarcely referred to in the inscriptional texts.”
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In the paper
“Tin, and to a lesser extent, lead, are also recorded in the inscriptions.”
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In the paper
“Han mirror inscriptions reveal clues concerning all the four technical procedures, although this evidence is often buried beneath exaggerated rhetorical encomiums.”
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In the paper
“One such surviving example, initially documented by the eminent Qing antiquarian Sun Xingyan 孫星 衍 (1753-1818), rhapsodizes over the so-called dark-black tin: '[Your extended beneficence is like] the glossy [mirror] coated by the dark-black tin' 伋玄錫之流澤 . 58”
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In the paper
“just as a dexterous artisan from the late Eastern Han announces, 'I made this bright mirror by smelting the hard metals in the dark' 吾作 明竟,幽湅金岡 .”
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“The inscription on a late Eastern Han mirror claims, for instance, 'The mirror made by the yellow auspicious [metal] is bright and glowing' 黃羊作鏡明而光 .”
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In the paper
“An unusual inscription indeed mentions the lead content: '[I made] a pure and bright [mirror] by mixing and harmonizing lead and tin' 和周鉛錫淸且明 . 51”
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- Rests on an assumption: Adding lead to bronze alloy lowers its melting point.
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In the paper
“When the artisan felt that the term ming alone was not enough to praise the superior quality of his shimmering product, he would not hesitate to compound it with other adjectives of illumination, one of the most favored of which in the Eastern Han was guang 光 .”
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In the paper
“The inscriber juxtaposes the string of illumination wordsjing , hua , guang , yao , and tun -to remind the reader of its radiance inside and out.”
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In the paper
“Take, for example, a formulaic phrase of the late Western Han: 'In the Han regime, the best copper is produced in Danyang; the copper makes a pure and bright [mirror] when mixed with silver-colored tin' 漢有善銅出丹陽,和以銀錫清且明 . 47”
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In the paper
“As in the above examples, the adverb shen underscores the rareness and uniqueness of the mirror's brightness in an exaggerated tone.”
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In the paper
“Conversely, the character ming 明 was often paired with the verb zhao 昭 to form lively and poetic prose, exemplified by the following verse, '[The mirror's] inner purity is to reflect/manifest brightness' 內清質以昭明 , a prevailing phraseology that recurrently decorated a variegated array of mirror types during the late second and first centuries bce.”
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In the paper
“Sometimes, the term guang appears by itself as the noun for a mirror's reflected light. On a mirror cast in 167 ce , the inscription records, 'I made this bright mirror following my own method; the white bronze is clear and bright, it greatly abounds in glow 吾作明竟自有方,白同清明大多光 . 34 It attributes the mirror's radiance to its raw material, the high-tin bronze.”
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In the paper
“'The mirror made by the yellow auspicious [metal] is fine and glowingly bright' 黃羊作鏡,好而光明 , reads the inscription on another late Eastern Han mirror. 30 This idiom is commonly cast on mirrors adorned with figures of deities and animals .”
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In the paper
“The philosophical thinking closely resonates with a contemporaneous mirror inscription, which reads, '[The mirror's] outer light and inner image greatly irradiate the abyss' 外光內景兮輝蕩淵 . 87”
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In the paper
“To date, the earliest inscription mentioning the sun is jian ri zhi guang 見日之光 , which surrounds the central knob of a mirror adorned with striped commas, a conventional type that circulated only during the early Western Han. 61”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [61]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As an anonymous artisan proclaims in the first century bce , 'I smelted the lustrous copper to obtain its clarity and used it to make the mirror that reflects the form of the body' 冶煉銅華得其清,以之為鏡昭身刑 . 88”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [88]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A variant reads, '[The mirror] associated with the white-bright moonlight is dazzling and beautiful' 處皎光而輝美 . 70”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [70]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Nevertheless, this explanation is only partially true, as the received texts show that jiao was used to modify the brightness and whiteness of the sun.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [74]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Mirror scribes even coined a lyrical term, jiao guang 皎光 , to designate lunar-like radiance: '[The mirror] shines as glistening and beautiful as the white-bright moonlight' 如皎光而耀美 . 69”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [69]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Such inscriptions could be highly individualized: 'Zhang Yuangong from Huyang, Wu county . . . made this bright mirror, which converges the light of the sun and moon to attain brightness' 吳郡胡陽張元公 … 造為明 鏡,日月合萌 . 81”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [81]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In contrast to the Huainanzi text that refers to both the sun and the moon, Han mirror inscriptions rarely portray the moon as a light source, 65 although it is often eulogized for its brilliance-a point to be discussed below in this section.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [65]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As an early Western Han phraseology acclaims, '[The mirror] encounters the glow of the sun and possesses moonlike brightness' 見日之光,有月之明 , 67 which not only analogizes specular brightness to lunar brightness but also highlights the sun as the underlying cause.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [67]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mirrors of this type are usually signed with the names of individual artisans.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Since then, scholars have uncovered several other mirrors bearing nearly identical verses, all of which are associated with the decoration of panchi dragons and TLVs-one of the earliest mirror types in the Western Han. 59”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [59]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Another example that rhapsodizes over its solar- and lunar-like rarity reads, 'Mr. Wang made this mirror that is gratifying and fine; it is as bright as the sun and the moon, which is a treasure for generations' 王氏作竟佳且好,明而日月 世之保 . 80”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [80]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“This poetic analogy is only one of many that were composed and inscribed throughout the Western Han. 68”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [68]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“One early example, described at the beginning of the paper, was made by the artisan Feng in 15 bce. 78”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [78]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“While the majority of mirrors uncovered from the Qin-Han remains are small, circular discs, archaeological evidence shows that large, rectangle-shaped mirrors that conform to the legendary Qin Palace example did exist.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [127]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“With the help of a mirror, one would be able to ensure one's proper attire, which was an important social etiquette for the Han elites, just as the inscription on a late Western Han mirror unearthed from Guangxi reads: '[You may] see your countenance and adjust yourself aided by the mirror' 視容正己鏡為右 . 92”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [92]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“These specimens were uncovered from the central plains as well as northwest, southeast, and southwest China in the early empire, demonstrating a widespread interest in mirroring the self for adequate appearances at that time. 91”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [91]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, none of the above inscriptions explicitly articulates the reflection of the inauspicious in a mirror, which forms an interesting contrast with later transmitted sources.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“On a mirror of the grass-leaf type, both the terms da ming and da yang occur in the same inscription, announcing, 'The sunrise brings out great brightness, and the world becomes utterly brilliant'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [154]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“In a few cases, the character 明 is replaced by 陽 , an interchangeable graph that denotes sunlight as well as brilliance.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [153]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It soon came to be one of the most prevailing inscriptions during the second and first centuries bce and was associated with several major mirror types, including those with grass leaves, heavy concentric rings, revolving scallops, and TLVs.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both the received texts and the excavated inscriptions promise the impartiality and luminosity of the mirror-only the latter expounds on its semiotic link to the sun and moon.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But the current study reveals that Han mirrors were associated not only with the moon but also with the sun.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the received texts elaborate on the mirror's apotropaic function of revealing the true nature of demons and goblins, the excavated inscriptions have been surprisingly ambiguous about this efficacious attribute.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared to the exceptional tian liang , the term si fang appears more frequently in Eastern Han inscriptions.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the received texts unanimously use the logograph ming as a modifier of the mirror, excavated inscriptions exhibit a much more vibrant and poetic scheme of 'brightness' by adopting a wide variety of words of illumination.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the received texts dwell upon the moral role of the reflective mirror as a tool for self-inspection, the excavated inscriptions also exclaim the beauty of their reflected light and the pleasure of illuminating oneself, and by extension, the whole world.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The idea of lighting up the cosmological space almost disappeared in the late Western Han and rarely resurged in the subsequent period.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This advertising strategy prevailed throughout the Han as the mirror industry sprung up to meet the increasing consumer demand.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The article further argues that the inscribed verses, while often formulaic and clichéd, were neither mere decorations nor generic blessings. In fact, they meaningfully structured and communicated a particular aesthetic appreciation shared by both Han artisans and users.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The polysemy of the word ming often led to a slippery usage that conflated ''light,' 'visual perception,' and 'perceptiveness,' but also the ideal of 'clarity',' as revealed by Michael Nylan.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Early Chinese mirror inscriptions are by no means a popular subject in Western sinology. In the decades since Karlgren's phenomenal paper, only a handful of scholars have engaged with this rich and unique material.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of documentation and identification has prospered in congruence with the unprecedented new archaeological discoveries of Han mirrors in the People's Republic of China after 1949.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As Paula Varsano has noted, ming 明 (literally, 'bright') is the most common modifier of the word 'mirror' in those philosophical texts.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“In this lengthy article, Karlgren laboriously translated 257 items of Han inscriptions from existing Chinese and Japanese antiquarian catalogs as well as newly established European collections, which, according to him, included all the known examples at that time.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It argues that specular brightness as a defining feature of Han mirrors was exploited by artisans to attract potential buyers.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Han mirror buyers valued specular brightness and were influenced by inscriptions that advertised it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As my paper demonstrates, the conception and perception of specular brightness in the minds of artisans and users, whose quotidian enjoyment of specular radiance is articulated and documented primarily through epigraphic evidence, resonate with but do not always conform to the philosophical discourse of the 'bright mirror' in the transmitted texts.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This seemingly simple and straightforward term, according to Henri Maspéro, connoted a rich variety of interconnected meanings ranging from 'light' to 'bright,' 'brilliant,' 'intelligent,' and 'sacred.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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In the paper
“Recent scholarly endeavors, particularly those undertaken by Lin Suqing 林素清 , Peng Yu 鵬宇 , Hayashi Hiromi 林裕己 , and the research group 'Chūgoku kokyō no kenkyū han' 中國古鏡の研究班 , have led to a comprehensive and well-organized database of Han inscriptions annotated in Chinese or Japanese.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [9]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These idioms frequently articulate and rhapsodize over notions of radiance and brilliance, illumination and reflection, which I consider constitute the aesthetic of brightness uniquely encapsulated by bronze mirrors and widely appreciated in Han society.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These inscriptional texts, I consider, articulate the discourse about 'the aesthetic of brightness' as an object, an experience, a judgment, and a kind of value.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Unlike their intellectual counterparts who originally philosophized this notion, Han artisans frequently made use of the same terminology in various ways to vaunt the reflective and radiant properties of their products, which must have had a strong appeal to potential buyers.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [16]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Han mirror buyers valued specular brightness and were influenced by inscriptions that advertised it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Concurrently, the archaic four-character verses grew into lengthier and livelier seven-character sentences, a literary phenomenon that coincided with the contemporary development of poetry.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These epigraphic verses in this paper serve as unofficial histories and firsthand accounts about the Han mirror makers' marketing strategies and users' perceptions of these seemingly trivial metal discs.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More importantly, some of the inscriptional verses, differentiated from the more generic auspicious blessings that appeared on other types of objects, are exclusively associated with mirrors, and they are semantically meaningful to communicate the aesthetic appreciation for the mirror shared across that society.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“and yet, this should not be the reason to diminish their research value in terms of studying the beliefs and idea systems of early imperial China, as 'they neatly codify otherwise raw experiences and indicate how the welter of period sentiments was ordered.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [15]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Examining how artisans advertised their high-tin bronzes as embodiments of solar and lunar light, the study shows that specular brilliance was linked to a range of cosmetic, moral, and religious powers, from illuminating the individual and the physical world to revealing the invisible world, whether of human emotions or demons.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The two centuries of the Eastern Han witnessed an increasing number of private workshops that did not shy away from promoting their craftsmanship in terms of attaining specular brightness.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Han mirror inscriptions have been scrupulously documented and transcribed from the Qing dynasty onward due to the constant and vibrant antiquarian interest that has resulted in a number of foundational catalogs.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The dominant element in speculum metal was copper, as the Han artisans correctly recognized: 'For the mirror to be clear and bright, the copper must be fine' 鏡清明,銅必良 . 44”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [44]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To attain specular brightness, Han artisans employed a special technical procedure, with polishing as the last step.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“'When the bright mirror has just been cast, it is bleary and does not yet reflect appearances' 明鏡之始下型,矇然未見形容 , describes the Huainanzi 淮南子 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [52]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Scholars commonly agree that san shang connotes the three major metals of bronze, namely, copper, tin, and lead. 41”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A few have even conducted experiments to replicate the polishing process and to determine the exact abrasive that was used. 57”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [57]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“According to Karlgren, the other two phrases, 'three auspicious metals' ( san yang 三羊 ) and 'three hard metals' ( san gang 三岡 ), sporadically serve as synonyms to replace san shang . 42”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [42]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interestingly, the mixture of these three metals correlates with san shang , the three metals for mirror casting.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The smoother and flatter a mirror surface, the clearer and truer the mirrored image will be.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to Zheng Xuan's 鄭玄 (127-200 ce ) annotation, 'copper added with plenty of tin will appear tenacious, white and bright' 凡金多錫,則忍、白且明也 . 49”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [49]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a prominent scholar of the Eastern Han, Zheng himself might not have had firsthand experience with casting; rather, he must have obtained the knowledge from contemporary artisans who had mastered by heart that a bronze mirror's material attributes-hardness, whiteness, and brightness-are primarily conditioned by the ratio of tin to copper.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Until now, scholars have proposed six interpretations of the content of xuan xi : 1) quicksilver; 2) a combination of quicksilver and tin (tin amalgam); 3) black lead; 4) a combination of lead and tin; 5) a combination of tin, mercury, alum, and deerhorn ash; and 6) gray tin (α-tin). 55”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Paul W. Kroll further demonstrates that its meaning extends to 'shine on, illuminate, brighten, show, display, manifest.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [27]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For a bronze mirror to formulate a clear reflection, superficial smoothness is also important.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“An oft-cited piece of textual evidence are the Six Formulae ( liu qi 六齊 ) of the Kaogong ji 考工記 , which was compiled around the fifth century bce . 48 One of the formulae, the so-called formula of mirrors and sun-igniters ( jian sui zhi qi 鑑燧之齊 ), comments on the composition of bronze mirrors: 'copper [in half] and tin in half' 金锡半 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [48]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Both shi hua 石華 and tong hua 銅華 denote the copper ore, which, in natural settings, would gleam under dark conditions.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [46]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The term zhao literarily means 'to see' as a verb, according to the Erya 爾雅 , the oldest surviving dictionary in China.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [26]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To resolve the long-standing dispute with empirical data, archaeologists have conducted lab analyses of a number of Han mirrors' surface layers to seek evidence of residual mercury. 56”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [56]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Here, the term xuan , in addition to describing the dark-black hue of the abrasive, also forms a contrasting pair with ming , in the same way as the abovementioned pairing of you and ming . 54”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [54]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Decades ago, Karlgren noted that zhao is a synonym for the verb zhao 照 , specifically, 'to reflect, to reflect light, to illuminate, to show the image of, to look at one's image.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [28]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the foregoing discussion demonstrates, the specular brightness that is homologous to the sun and moon came to be a selling point, an essential physical property, and a (meta-) physical embodiment of early imperial Chinese mirrors.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The two terms, yao mei 耀美 and hui mei 輝美 , are to some extent interchangeable; both describe the dazzling attraction of the radiant mirror that resembles the gleaming moonlight, at least metaphorically.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The illumination of these devices, albeit not surpassing that of the sun, would be sufficiently luminous to form a mirror reflection.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [66]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This analogy is elaborated by the Western Han scholar Jing Fang 京房 (78-37 bce ): 'The moon and the stars are the ultimate yin ; they have shape but no light. They become lightened only when the sun illuminates them. Similarly, the sun illuminates the mirror and therefore the latter manifests light-image' 月與星,至隂也,有形無光, 日照之乃光,如以鏡照日,而有景見 . 86”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [86]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To Han intellectuals, the sun correlates with fire and emits light; the moon correlates with water and reflects light: 'The sun is approximately the same as fire, and the moon is approximately the same as water; fire is outward light whereas water contains a light-image' 夫日譬 猶火,月譬猶水,火則外光,水則含景 . 85”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [85]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both praise mirrors for their fineness and rareness in resembling the sunlight and moonlight.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Following this line, the idiomatic expression, jian ri zhi guang , can thus be interpreted as '[the mirror] encounters the light of the sun,' which vividly reveals the source of illumination for the Han mirror.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“According to the Eastern Han dictionary Shuowen jiezi 說文解字 , the graph 皎 denotes the white and glowing surface of the moon. 73”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [73]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Toward the end of the Eastern Han, the scholar-official Gao Tanglong 高堂隆 (d. 237 ce ) articulated the dualistic mechanism in the making of a bronze mirror: 'The yang talisman, also known as the yangsui mirror, obtains fire from the sun; the yin talisman, also known as the yinsui mirror, fetches water from the moon. Both mirrors were made with bronze, and were named the mirrors of water and fire'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [83]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 'quintessence' in the inscriptional context seems to echo the essences of solar fire and lunar water described in Gao's passage.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This reflectivity of the watery moon contingent upon the brilliance of the sun is analogous to that of the mirror, as the latter imitates the former's reflective capacity.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Han society cherished these small yet shining artifacts, not merely because they possessed a radiance that might be aesthetically pleasing to look at and think about but also because mirrors were capable of performing certain functions, the realization of which was believed to be predicated upon their association with the sun and the moon.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the inscription indicates, in addition to the technical refinement of the bronze substrate, the two celestial bodies are also pertinent to a mirror's brightness.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“According to the Warring States philosopher Han Fei 韓非 (ca. 280-233 bce ), 'the ancient person fell short of self-reflection with his own eyes and thus used a mirror to contemplate his face' 古之人目短於自見,故以鏡觀面 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [93]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As these lyrical lines imply, women buyers would covet these mirrors for their beautifying power.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Rests on an assumption: The desires expressed in mirror inscriptions reflect actual consumer desires.
In the paper
“This poetic trope endowing the mirror with the clear reflection of the beholder's morality evolved and proliferated in the subsequent Tang dynasty, when several famous poets alluded to the Xijing zaiji story with the shortened verse 'the Qin mirror illuminating one's gall'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [126]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As such, the discussion exposes the fissure between transmitted and inscriptional texts, which roughly corresponds to the two strands of thinking, philosophical and popular.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The inscription's anachronistic juxtaposition of the two attractive historical figures, Duke Jing of Qi 齊景公 (ca. 550-490 bce ) and Wu Mengyao 吳夢瑤 (d. 301 bce ), 107 which never occurs in transmitted texts, seems to have served as a collective reference to persons with glamorous looks, a rhetorical device used to persuade potential buyers of a mirror's benefit.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [107]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions were designed to persuade potential buyers.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is to say that a mirror could serve as a perfect visual aid for examining one's image, an advisable conduct for gentlemen and ladies because only with a mirror in hand could one enhance one's physical appearance.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the impartial and infallible vision provided by the specular metal by no means ends at a superficial level; rather, it promises an all-seeing power capable of revealing the inner feelings and bodily organs of the beholder which are invisible to the naked eye.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These statements unanimously discredit the idea that a mirror is capable of reflecting one's inner disposition, forming a marked contrast with the mirror inscriptions.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In addition to reflecting the outer appearance of the beholder, a Han mirror was to lighten and beautify the mirrored subject as a mirror's reflected light was believed to glamorize its user.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [101]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [102]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions were designed to persuade potential buyers.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the above discussion shows, owing to its specular brightness, a Han mirror was believed to be able to not only faithfully reflect the beholder's face, body, and garments, but also beautify its beholder with its glowing radiance.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Noticeably, the 'viscera' described in the Xijing zaji and Shuyi ji are specified as two particular organs-liver ( gan 肝 ) and gall ( dan 膽 )-both of which evince the moral judgment of honesty and courage.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This optical magic was even believed to enable a mirror to manifest true forms of demonic spirits, an exorcist practice that became associated with religious Daoism no later than the end of the Eastern Han.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
In the paper
“In other words, the visual perception of the mirror is analogous to that of the human eye.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [97]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The same craving must have existed among male customers, for whom a bright mirror was capable of reflecting an idealized image of its owner, which could make one's reflection as graceful as that of a noble and as charming as the essence of jade.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [103]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Rests on an assumption: The desires expressed in mirror inscriptions reflect actual consumer desires.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The size and shape of the Linzi mirror loosely matches the formal description of the Qin Palace mirror, suggesting that colossal, rectangular mirrors were indeed cast in early imperial China.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [127]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Han Fei further warns of the adverse consequence of not having a mirror at one's disposal because 'when one's eyes lose sight of the mirrored [images], one will not be able to correct one's beard and eyebrows' 目失鏡則無以正鬚眉 . 93”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [93]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this case, the reflecting power of the mirror has evolved the capacity to not only see the bodily organs but also to diagnose diseases and read the mind of the beholder.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The eye and the mirror are juxtaposed in the Guanzi 管子 and Huainanzi , which claim that '[Such a person] mirrors himself in the great purity, and he sees with great brightness'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [99]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“On occasion, the reflected light is analogized with that of the moon. Such light belongs to the yin realm with which the mirrored fair lady resonated”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [102]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“From the perspective of the early philosophers, craftsmen, and customers, a mirror-due to its illuminating power that resembles the sun and moon-would be capable of supplementing and amplifying human vision.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
In the paper
“Toward the end of the Eastern Han, inscriptional prose became more vulgar but still implied that looking into a mirror was an act that, more than simply revealing the image of a subject, entailed shining on the subject”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [104]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Not matched
In the paper
“This optical clarity of a mirror may be enhanced by its affinity to the celestial bodies: '[The mirror is] as shining as the sun and moon and knows the dispositions of others'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [113]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Just as the mirror was modeled after the brightness of the sun and moon, so was the human eye: 'What is the human eye modeled on? It is modeled on the brightness of the sun and moon'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [100]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the inscription composer of the aforementioned mirror may or may not have read the medical text, the association between the ideal image of a person and the two celestial bodies must have been some sort of tacit knowledge embedded in contemporary minds.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Transmitted texts such as the Su wen, Guanzi, and Huainanzi can be used to interpret the meaning and significance of mirror inscriptions.
- Rests on an assumption: Ideas found in transmitted medical or philosophical texts were part of tacit common knowledge in Han times.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The brilliant illumination of the specular metal was exploited to illuminate the whole world, at least metaphorically.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Its sudden and frequent occurrence on Western Han mirrors might have been correlated with the establishment and consolidation of the new empire.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Inscriptions had not articulated the apotropaic function until the late Western Han, although, in practice, mirrors might have been used for this purpose.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirrors were used for apotropaic purposes in practice before inscriptions articulated that function.
In the paper
“Therefore, in the old days, every Daoist entering the mountains would suspend on his back a bright mirror measuring nine cun or more in diameter so that demons would not dare approach him . . . If they were birds, animals, or evil demons, their true forms would appear in the mirror”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [136]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Nearly four hundred years later, the apotropaic practice involving the mirror's ability to instantly and faithfully divulge evil spirits spread from the royal palaces to the masses, and especially to Daoist practitioners, for whom a bright mirror became an indispensable implement when roaming in the mountains.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [136]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“A concept initially put forth by the Eastern Zhou thinkers and institutionalized by the Qin-Han politicians, tian xia or all-under-heaven is cosmological, geographical, and political.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [150]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“the capacity of the righteous mind to differentiate between the good and the evil is compared to that of the bright mirror”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [139]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“By the end of the Han dynasty, the term's connotations suggested both a vast cosmopolitan empire and a political ideal that encompassed peoples across great distances regardless of their ethnic and cultural origins.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [151]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“As Fukunaga Mitsuji 福永光司 has noted, this Daoist belief originated from the mythification of the physical brightness of the mirror uttered in the philosophical Daoist text Huainanzi .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [140]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These idiomatic expressions, albeit generic, clearly posit mirrors as talismans.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As these anecdotes indicate, being 'exotic' is key to possessing the reflective power to reveal the true forms of apparitions.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“But the recently uncovered inscriptional evidence suggests an earlier linkage of the mirror with the apotropaic function, even though whether such function is predicated upon specular brightness is unclear.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [130]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken literally, this phrase denotes that the world illuminated by the mirror is as bright as the sun.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The considerable popularity of this inscriptional verse at the time might have corresponded to the rise of Daoism as a popular religion around the same period.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [145]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The four-character phrase, tian xia da ming 天下大明 , usually coupled with the aforementioned jian ri zhi guang , literarily means that 'all-under-heaven becomes greatly illuminated.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [149]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, the idea of harmonizing the mirror with the sun and moon finds precedent in the Han mirror inscriptions enumerated above.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mirrors are thus supposed to reveal and consequently repel the inauspicious.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Aside from being regarded as the inaugural designer and caster, the sage ruler himself is imbued with apotropaic power.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [143]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [144]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“the inscriptions on many bronze mirrors cast in the first centuries were Daoist in nature and captured the rise of early religious Daoism of the Han dynasty.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [141]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“This long poem lavishly illustrates the aesthetic appreciation of specular brightness. It not only compares the reflected light of the mirror to that of the sun and moon, but also personifies the interplay between the inner essence of the metal and the outer appearance of the shining surface. It not only explicitly romanticizes the act of mirroring a presumably female figure, but also implicitly”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [169]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [170]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Just like tian xia , the geographic and political nomenclature of si fang , or the four quarters, designates all directions and thereby the world.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [157]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These intricately manufactured objects were believed to have embodied the solar and lunar brilliance of the most prominent stellar bodies, which served as the sources of light and as symbolic models for the former.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As the Liji 禮記 claims, 'The sun and moon illuminate impartially' 日月無私照 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [162]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In the Shi ji , the term da ming is employed to describe the perceptiveness of Shun, one of the three legendary Chinese rulers: 'The virtue of Shun is greatly bright' 舜德大明 .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [164]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“To Wang, the connection between the mirror and the moon lies in the depiction of a toad, a tree, and osmanthus flowers on the backs of a few Tang-dynasty mirrors.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [166]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“As Eugene Wang notes, the analogy between the moon and the mirror 'gained particular currency in the eighth and ninth centuries, when the moon appears to have caught the collective fancy.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [166]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Sabine Melchior-Bonnet considers our contemporary mirrors to be 'the matrix of the symbolic,' accompanying the contemplation of the self. 171 Her statement also holds true for the mirrors of the Han dynasty, when its people were intensely attentive to seeing themselves and their world through these often petite yet brilliant discs”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [171]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, it demonstrates the complexity of the multi-layered messages, encoded in the seemingly 'meaningless' texts, which should not be dismissed as merely 'decorative,' especially as those verses containing words of illumination are exclusive to the metallic medium.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Due to its special association with the sun and moon, the bright mirror accrued aesthetic, moral, and religious functions that ranged from beautifying the subject to revealing emotions, warding off demons, and illuminating the world.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Just as the edict extols the splendid achievement of the ruler, the da ming inscription and its variants, speaking on behalf of their makers and users, draw an analogy between the infinite shininess of the sun and moon-and thereupon the mirror-and the moral ideal of the benevolent ruler; as such, makers and users aspired for an ideal world blessed with great brightness.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The verses inscribed on Han mirrors express the aspirations and beliefs of the people who made and used them.
In the paper
“Again, in a royal edict, Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75-88 ce ) proclaimed as follows: 'We hear that the virtue of an enlightened ruler is to reveal and inculcate splendidly, ensure brightness and peaceful governance, and shed light on the six darkened realms'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [165]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“As Ge Zhaoguang has suggested, it is crucial to define tian xia geographically by distinguishing the center and the four quarters, which respectively correspond to the central Self and peripheral Other in the collective unconscious.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [158]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“the Eastern Han scholar Ma Rong's 馬融 (79-166 ce ) annotation of the Shang shu 尚書 : ' ming denotes the illumination of all four directions [under heaven]'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [161]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Through the bronze mirror as a mediator, the personal and celestial encountered and converged as one, physically and metaphorically”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that artisans and buyers have consistently seized upon and exploited mirrors for their specular brightness sets these objects apart from other decorative arts of the Han empire.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Han mirrors were considered embodiments of the moon as well as of the sun, and the tradition of appreciating mirrors associated with the moon continued into subsequent dynasties.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [166]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These depictions evoke an ancient iconographic convention of the moonscape in the Chinese imagination, unlike Han mirrors, which bore no references to imaginary moonscapes.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suzanne Cahill further asserts that the Chinese association of the mirror with the moon 'contrasts with Japan, where the mirror was associated with the worship of the sun and the solar goddess Amaterasu, from whom the imperial line was believed to descend.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [167]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This helps explain why Han artisans employed the same rhetoric to prize the brightness of the physical mirror and to glorify the geographic extension of the Han empire as these inscriptional verses express the same aspiration of bringing brightness to the world.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Within decades, metal mirrors were abundantly manufactured and consumed across the vast Han empire, which cultivated an aesthetic that their inscriptions described as 'brightness,' which would enable the objects to shine on the viewer and the world and to reveal the visible and invisible in a world with relatively poor artificial lighting.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [168]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As the most appreciated celestial orbs, the sun and moon not only represented an aesthetic symbol of splendor but literarily illuminated the world under heaven, as nothing else would outshine the sun and moon in terms of scope and intensity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Han mirror buyers valued specular brightness and were influenced by inscriptions that advertised it.
“which must have had a strong appeal to potential buyers”
“to lure prospective clients”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Han mirror users relied on lamps or candles in domestic spaces.
“It is therefore reasonable to assume that Han mirror users must have relied on lamps or candles in domestic spaces.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Danyang was historically known for mining fine copper.
“Danyang, one of the Han commanderies in today's southeast Anhui province, was historically known for mining fine copper.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Adding lead to bronze alloy lowers its melting point.
“Archaeometallurgy tells us that lead, when added to the bronze alloy, will help lower the melting point.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Han mirror inscriptions reliably reflect the aesthetic values and beliefs of Han artisans and mirror users.
“The aesthetic obsession with the sun and moon among artisans and users of mirrors prevailed into the early years of the third century ce .”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mirror inscriptions express the beliefs, intentions, or practices of their producers or users.
“As inscriptional evidence suggests, the perceptive merit of the mirror was initially understood as a device to detect the emotion and disposition of the beholder.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Transmitted texts such as the Su wen, Guanzi, and Huainanzi can be used to interpret the meaning and significance of mirror inscriptions.
“This idea echoes the ocular power of the eye articulated in the Su wen , which considers that it is ming that enables the eye to see the world”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mirror inscriptions were designed to persuade potential buyers.
“a rhetorical device used to persuade potential buyers of a mirror's benefit”
The paper relies on this without support.
The desires expressed in mirror inscriptions reflect actual consumer desires.
“As these lyrical lines imply, women buyers would covet these mirrors for their beautifying power.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Ideas found in transmitted medical or philosophical texts were part of tacit common knowledge in Han times.
“the association between the ideal image of a person and the two celestial bodies must have been some sort of tacit knowledge embedded in contemporary minds.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Mirrors were used for apotropaic purposes in practice before inscriptions articulated that function.
“although, in practice, mirrors might have been used for this purpose.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The verses inscribed on Han mirrors express the aspirations and beliefs of the people who made and used them.
“speaking on behalf of their makers and users”
“makers and users aspired for an ideal world blessed with great brightness.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The corpus of Han mirror inscriptions studied here is representative of Han beliefs about mirrors.
“As shown by this study of the extensive corpus of Han mirror inscriptions”
Citations
Cites
The Stele Inscriptions of Ch'in Shih-huang: Text and Ritual in Early Chinese Imperial Representation
Sena, D., & Kern, M. (2001) · Chinese Literature Essays Articles Reviews (CLEAR) · doi:10.2307/495510 · Cited by 109
Huang, S.-S. S. (2015) · Harvard University Asia Center eBooks · doi:10.1163/9781684175161 · Cited by 66
(2012) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 64
Representation and Appropriation: Rethinking the TLV Mirror in Han China
Tseng, L. L.-Y. (2004) · Early China · doi:10.1017/s0362502800007112 · Cited by 13
Longevity Like, Metal and Stone: the Role of the Mirror in Han Burials
Brashier, K. E. (1995) · T'oung Pao · doi:10.1163/156853295x00088 · Cited by 11
Once again, the Authorship of the Hsi-Ching Tsa-Chi (Miscellanies of the Western Capital)
Nienhauser, W. H. (1978) · Journal of the American Oriental Society · doi:10.2307/598684 · Cited by 9
Early Chinese mirror inscriptions
(1935) · Cited by 7
Editing and Translating the Taiping Jing and the Great Peace Textual Corpus
Espesset, G. (2008) · HAL (Le Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe) · Cited by 6
A Student's Dictionary of Classical and Medieval Chinese
O'Neill, T. (2017) · Tang Studies · doi:10.1080/07375034.2016.1234997 · Cited by 6
The Life and Afterlife of a Western Han “Covered Mirror” from the Tomb of Marquis of Haihun (59 BCE)
Guo, J. (2019) · Journal of Chinese History · doi:10.1017/jch.2019.10 · Cited by 4
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Research on Song dynasty copper mirror pattern recognition based on MOEAD
Feng, Q., Yu, K., Li, Y., et al. (2026) · npj Heritage Science · doi:10.1038/s40494-026-02413-x · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Guo, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Guo, Yanlong
- ORCID
- Guo, Yanlong
- Venue
- Journal of the American Oriental Society
- Publisher
- American Oriental Society
- Published
- 2021-09-19
- Volume
- 141
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 0003-0279 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-2289
- OpenAlex
- W3141404480
- Semantic Scholar
- 3a858f80826838dd330bf6a06f72307a2dd1315b
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 20
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of the American Oriental Society (publishedVersion)
- Smith ScholarWorks (Smith College) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › General Arts and Humanities › Cultural and Mythological Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Classical Studies and Philology
- Keywords
- mirror inscriptions, aestheticization, high-tin bronze, decorative arts, early imperial China
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: Aesthetic of Brightness in Han Mirror Inscriptions. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.7817/jameroriesoci.141.1.0093
- The paper
- Guo, Y. (2021). Aesthetic of Brightness in Han Mirror Inscriptions. Journal of the American Oriental Society. https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.141.1.0093
