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Prevalence of and Risk Factors for Diabetic Macular Edema in the United States
Open accessAbstract
IMPORTANCE: Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a leading cause of vision loss in persons with diabetes mellitus. Although there are national estimates for the prevalence of diabetic retinopathy and its risk factors among persons with diabetes, to our knowledge, no comparable estimates are available for DME specifically. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the prevalence of DME in the US population and to identify associated risk factors. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: A cross-sectional analysis of 1038 participants aged 40 years or older with diabetes and valid fundus photographs in the 2005 to 2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The overall prevalence of DME and its prevalence according to age, race/ethnicity, and sex. RESULTS: Of the 1038 persons with diabetes analyzed for this study, 55 had DME, for an overall weighted prevalence of 3.8% (95% CI, 2.7%-4.9%) or approximately 746, 000 persons in the US 2010 population aged 40 years or older. We identified no differences in the prevalence of DME by age or sex. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that the odds of having DME were higher for non-Hispanic blacks than for non-Hispanic whites (odds ratio [OR], 2.64; 95% CI, 1.19-5.84; P = .02). Elevated levels of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.26-1.71 for each 1%; P < .001) and longer duration of diabetes (OR, 8.51; 95% CI, 3.70-19.54 for ≥ 10 vs <10 years; P < .001) were also associated with DME prevalence. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: These results suggest a greater burden of DME among non-Hispanic blacks, individuals with high levels of hemoglobin A1c, and those with longer duration of diabetes. Given recent treatment advances in reducing vision loss and preserving vision in persons with DME, it is imperative that all persons with diabetes receive early screening; this recommendation is even more important for those at higher risk for DME.
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“For example, African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME), 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy, and 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites9–12.”
From Autonomous AI-assisted diabetic retinopathy screening at primary care is associated with increased presentation to eye care by at risk patients (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“For example, African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME), 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy, and 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites9–12.”
From Autonomous AI-assisted diabetic retinopathy screening at primary care is associated with increased presentation to eye care by at risk patients (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“For example, African-American patients are three times more likely to present with diabetic macular edema (DME), 1.6 times more likely to present with vision-threatening diabetic retinopathy, and 4 times more likely to present with vision loss as compared to non-Hispanic Whites9–12.”
From Autonomous AI-assisted diabetic retinopathy screening at primary care is associated with increased presentation to eye care by at risk patients (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Citations
Cites
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“DME arises from capillary leakage secondary to BRB disruption, resulting in central retinal swelling that can manifest at any stage of DR [39].”
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“The higher prevalence of visual impairment among Black people and Latinos is because they are more likely to have cataract, diabetes, and glaucoma than their White counterparts (Rodriguez et al., 2002; Varma et al., 2014, 2016).”
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“(1) Diabetic macular edema (DME) is the most common cause of vision loss in DR.(2) Standard treatment for DME involves repetitive, invasive intraocular injections, which place heavy burdens on the patient, physician, and health care reimbursement.”
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“Controlling risk factors like blood sugar, lipids and blood pressure is important in the management of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and in preserving vision [5-6] .”
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“As a matter of fact, 746,000 diabetics aged 40 and up in the US might be affected by DME [2].”
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“21 As this population is more likely to carry SCT than non-Black patients, when SCT status is unknown, ophthalmologists could consider testing patients with DM for the presence of comorbid SCT.”
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Macular edema: A fearful complication of diabetic eye disease
Ghanem, G. O. B., & Fawzi, A. A. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-88426-6.00005-1
Rangel, C. M., Mejía‐Salgado, G., Malo, L. C. M., Briceño, F., Parra, M. M., Esmeral-Ordoñez, D. A., Real, F. D., Arias, J. D., Varón, C. L., Villareal, E., et al. (2024) · Expert Review of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1080/17469899.2024.2362162
“Primary etiologies of ME include diabetes mellitus, retinal vein occlusions, uveitis, and age-related macular degeneration [1,2].”
Izumi, T., & Afifah (2024) · Journal of Advance Research in Medical & Health Science · doi:10.61841/trc37476
“8,13 This increasing frequency of DME highlights the need for effective management strategies that can address its vision-threatening effects.”
BackgroundInfluentialAkotoye, C., Perkins, S. W., Sharma, N., & Singh, R. P. (2024) · Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.jcjo.2024.06.004
Liu, T. Y. A., Leong, A. K., Wolf, R. M., Channa, R., Wang, J., Lehmann, H. P., & Abràmoff, M. D. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4652975/v1
Artificial Intelligence in Diabetes Mellitus Prediction: Advancements and Challenges - A Review
Awasthi, R., Mahavar, A., Shah, S., Patel, D. A., Patel, M., Shah, D. A., & Patel, A. D. (2024) · Current Bioinformatics · doi:10.2174/0115748936320525240915050640
Nano Photonic Crystal based Sensor for Diabetes Mellitus Detection
Ibrar, J. M. A., Gowda, R. B., Yadav, A., Balaji, V. R., & Supritha, T. R. (2023) · Workshop on Recent Advances in Photonics (WRAP) · doi:10.1109/wrap59682.2023.10712919
Weng, P. J., Karl, J. J., Patel, H. H., Allen, A., Rosdahl, J. A., & Schuman, S. G. (2024) · AJO International · doi:10.1016/j.ajoint.2024.100077
Oluleye, T. S., Babalola, Y. O., Majekodunmi, O., Ijaduola, M. A., Fasanmade, A., Alonge, T. O., & Adebusoye, S. O. (2024) · Nigerian Journal of Medicine · doi:10.4103/njm.njm_75_24
Correlation of serum lipid profile and diabetic retinopathy: a prospective study
Hemalatha, K., Preethi, V., & Babu, M. (2025) · International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences · doi:10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20250241
Jennings, E., Chen, D. K., Geevarghese, A., Kaiser, A., Coulon, S. J., & Modi, Y. S. (2025) · Ophthalmic surgery, lasers & imaging retina · doi:10.3928/23258160-20250127-02
Race and Vision Outcomes in Ranibizumab-Treated Participants With Diabetic Macular Edema
Ma, K., Hill, L., Stoilov, I., & Haller, J. A. (2025) · JAMA Ophthalmology · doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2024.6371 · Cited by 1
Retinal Disease Detection by Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)-Based Deep Learning
Noor, F., Nusaiba, F. T., Sami, T. A., & Rahman, M. A. (2024) · International Conference on Sustainable Technologies for Industry 5.0 (STI) · doi:10.1109/sti64222.2024.10951065
“Annually, CNV affects over 200,000 people [3], DME impacts nearly 750,000 people aged 40 or older [4], Drusen can be problematic, especially the larger, softer drusen, which increases the risk of age-related macular degeneration, a leading cause of vision loss in older adults [5].”
Epidemiological and Clinical Features of Macular Oedema in Douala, Cameroun
Koki, G., Nomo, A., Alunge, C. N. N., Biangoup, P. N., Nyouma, P., Eze, U. A., Tsimi, C. M., & Njoya, J. M. (2025) · Nigerian Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.4103/njo.njo_7_24
System for Continuous Tracking of Diabetes Management and Patient Health
Selvanayaki, S., Murugavel, A. S. M., & Deepa, S. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-0659-9.ch014
Valentim, C. C. S., Lai, H., Ogidigben, M. J., Singh, R. P., & Talcott, K. E. (2025) · BMC Ophthalmology · doi:10.1186/s12886-025-04208-3
“In fact, this population has a higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes, DR, and DME, all possibly related to inflammation [4, 39, 40].”
Bhavsar, A. P., Minerd, C. I., & Piri, N. (2025) · Clinical ophthalmology · doi:10.2147/opth.s537960
Nanji, K., Zaman, M., Tai, F., Yu, C. W., Mikhail, D., Jomy, J., Phillips, M., Zeraatkar, D., Tham, Y. C., Wong, T. Y., et al. (2025) · Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.jcjo.2025.08.001
Yang, J., Hsu, C. T., Wang, J., Wu, B., Lu, Y., Ding, Y., Zhao, Z., Tang, K., Lu, F., & Ma, L. (2025) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2025.1660920 · Cited by 2
Elgouhary, S. M., Bayomy, N. R., Elfarash, M. K., Aboali, S. Z., Barakat, S. A., Elnaggar, M. A., & Gaber, N. K. (2025) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines13102438
“Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common causes of legal blindness world-wide [1,2].”
Additional file 1 of Sociodemographic variables associated with risk for diabetic retinopathy
Nguyen, C. T. N., Yosef, M., Khalatbari, S. H., & Shah, A. R. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.21393634
Metadata
- Authors
- Varma, R., Bressler, N. M., Doan, Q. V., Gleeson, M., Danese, M., Bower, J. K., Selvin, E., Dolan, C., Fine, J., Colman, S., & Turpcu, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Outcomes Insights, Inc, Westlake Village, California
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Genentech (US)
- Corresponding author
- Varma, Rohit
- ORCID
- Venue
- JAMA Ophthalmology
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2014-11-01
- Volume
- 132
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1334
- ISSN
- 2168-6165 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4576994
- OpenAlex
- W2075206985
- Cited by
- 423
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 29.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- JAMA Ophthalmology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (T32HL007024)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Diseases and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Retinal Imaging and Analysis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Keywords
- diabetic macular edema, prevalence, risk factors, diabetes mellitus, racial disparities, non-Hispanic blacks, HbA1c, diabetes duration, vision loss, diabetic retinopathy, vision screening
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Blood Glucose, Cross-Sectional Studies, Diabetic Retinopathy, Ethnicity, Female, Health Surveys, Glycated Hemoglobin, Humans, Macular Edema, Male, Middle Aged, Nutrition Surveys, Risk Factors, United States, Prevalence, Age Distribution, Sex Distribution
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