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Powering Implantable and Ingestible Electronics
Open accessAbstract
Implantable and ingestible biomedical electronic devices can be useful tools for detecting physiological and pathophysiological signals, and providing treatments that cannot be done externally. However, one major challenge in the development of these devices is the limited lifetime of their power sources. The state-of-the-art of powering technologies for implantable and ingestible electronics is reviewed here. The structure and power requirements of implantable and ingestible biomedical electronics are described to guide the development of powering technologies. These powering technologies include novel batteries that can be used as both power sources and for energy storage, devices that can harvest energy from the human body, and devices that can receive and operate with energy transferred from exogenous sources. Furthermore, potential sources of mechanical, chemical, and electromagnetic energy present around common target locations of implantable and ingestible electronics are thoroughly analyzed; energy harvesting and transfer methods befitting each energy source are also discussed. Developing power sources that are safe, compact, and have high volumetric energy densities is essential for realizing long-term in-body biomedical electronics and for enabling a new era of personalized healthcare.
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“These conventional batteries, although energy dense, consume over half of the implant’s total volume and have limited duration of power supply (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Comparative analysis of energy transfer mechanisms for neural implants (2024) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
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“The limitation in available power supply options poses a significant challenge in powering brain implants, often restricting the device’s key features such as power density, including its diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities, operational lifespan, and duty cycle (Yang et al., 2021).”
From Comparative analysis of energy transfer mechanisms for neural implants (2024) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
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“A significant advancement in this area has been the development of solid-state electrolytes, allowing the thickness of these microbatteries to be reduced to mere micrometers.”
From Comparative analysis of energy transfer mechanisms for neural implants (2024) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2021
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Towards Real-Time and Energy-Efficient Inductive Wireless Power Transfer
Molinaro, G., Garripoli, C., Pasterkamp, J., Barkan, D., Patki, S., Torfs, T., Crupi, F., Stanzione, S., & Mercuri, M. (2026) · 2026 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Biomedical Conference (IMBioC) · doi:10.1109/imbioc69142.2026.11541173
“The motion was performed using a DOBOT Magician robotic arm at speeds ( v arm ) ranging from 0.1 to 2 cm/s, which correspond to the typical velocities of ingestible and implantable devices [17].”
InfluentialÖzbek, M. A., Çalışır, M., & Özgür, E. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837677771-00254
Patra, S., & Boisen, A. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00304
Characteristics of Materials for Biomedical Energy Transfer
Golafshan, N., & Kamaei, M. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00079
Overview and Need for Energy Materials in Healthcare
Huynh, N. D., Waller, N., Perris, J., Mulvihill, D. M., & Gadegaard, N. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00001
Energy Solutions for Implantable and Ingestible Electronics
Abdigazy, A., & Khan, Y. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00064
Biocompatible Batteries for Implantable and Ingestible Devices
Roy, S., & Patra, S. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00154
Sharma, K., Svendsen, M. B. S., Naik, D. A., & Boisen, A. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00285
Supercapacitors in Healthcare Devices
Durukan, M. B., Aygün, S. Ç., & Ünalan, H. E. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00175
Akhtar, S., de Souza, F. M., & Gupta, R. K. (2026) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781837679850-00118
Jain, B., & Bandodkar, A. J. (2026) · Materials Horizons · doi:10.1039/d6mh01006g
Biodegradable, Biologically Safe Nanogenerators for Self‐Powered Bio‐Integrated Systems
Han, S., Lee, H., Han, W. B., Naganaboina, V. R., Ryu, H., & Hwang, S. (2026) · Small Structures · doi:10.1002/sstr.70534
Self-powered functional materials for immune modulation by electrical stimulation
Peng, S., Wang, Y., Yang, R., Wang, Y., Sun, Q., Zhang, Y., & Gao, S. (2026) · Materials & Design · doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2026.117060
Zhang, F., 孙富昌, & Yan, Z. (2026) · npj Soft Matter · doi:10.1038/s44431-026-00041-w
“Commonmodalitiesincludenear-fi eld magnetic coupling, near-fi eld communication (NFC), Bluetooth, ultrasound, and magnetically triggered mechanical actuation 33 – 35 .”
Karunaharan, B., Sathish, M., Anandavalli, P., Sasirekha, M. P., Nallathambi, A., & Selvan, S. (2026) · 2026 7th International Conference on Smart Electronics and Communication (ICOSEC) · doi:10.1109/icosec70158.2026.11735979
“Also, enhancing these systems necessitates balancing the requisite energy transmission levels with stringent specific absorption rate constraints to lower the hazardous of thermal tissue damage [11,12].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Yang, S., Sencadas, V., You, S. S., Jia, N. Z., Srinivasan, S. S., Huang, H., Ahmed, A. E., Liang, J. Y., & Traverso, G.
- Affiliations
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research At MIT (US)
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA 02139 USA
- Brigham and Women's Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Traverso, Giovanni
- ORCID
- Venue
- Advanced Functional Materials
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2021-02-04
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 44
- ISSN
- 1616-301X (ISSN-L)
- 1616-3028
- PMC
- PMC8553224
- OpenAlex
- W3126551253
- Cited by
- 183
- References
- 448
- Citations by year
- 2026: 34 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 11
- FWCI
- 7.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Advanced Functional Materials (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Research Online (University of Wollongong) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Michigan State University
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- Kwanjeong Educational Foundation (19AmB32G)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Wireless Body Area Networks
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Innovative Energy Harvesting Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials
- Keywords
- implantable electronics, medical electronics, power sources, energy harvesting, energy storage, batteries, wireless power transfer, volumetric energy density, personalized healthcare
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