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Cited by 190Race, Genetics, and SocietyRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchMedical History and Research

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AAPA Statement on Race and Racism

Open access
Fuentes, Agustín, Ackermann, Rebecca Rogers, Athreya, Sheela, Bolnick, Deborah, Lasisi, Tina, Lee, Sang‐Hee, McLean, Shay‐Akil, Nelson, Robin·2019·American Journal of Physical Anthropology
DOI 10.1002/ajpa.23882
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Abstract

Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations. Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters. Instead, the Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination. It thus does not have its roots in biological reality, but in policies of discrimination. Because of that, over the last five centuries, race has become a social reality that structures societies and how we experience the world. In this regard, race is real, as is racism, and both have real biological consequences. Humans share the vast majority (99.9%) of our DNA in common. Individuals nevertheless exhibit substantial genetic and phenotypic variability. Genome/environment interactions, local and regional biological changes through time, and genetic exchange among populations have produced the biological diversity we see in humans today. Notably, variants are not distributed across our species in a manner that maps clearly onto socially-recognized racial groups. This is true even for aspects of human variation that we frequently emphasize in discussions of race, such as facial features, skin color and hair type. No group of people is, or ever has been, biologically homogeneous or "pure." Furthermore, human populations are not — and never have been — biologically discrete, truly isolated, or fixed. While race does not accurately represent the patterns of human biological diversity, an abundance of scientific research demonstrates that racism, prejudice against someone because of their race and a belief in the inherent superiority and inferiority of different racial groups, affects our biology, health, and well-being. This means that race, while not a scientifically accurate biological concept, can have important biological consequences because of the effects of racism. The belief in races as a natural aspect of human biology and the institutional and structural inequities (racism) that have emerged in tandem with such beliefs in European colonial contexts are among the most damaging elements in human societies. The concept of race has developed hand-in-hand with racist ideologies over the last five centuries, and biological anthropology has played an important role in the creation and perpetuation of both the race concept and racist ideologies. Racist political doctrines should not receive support from scientific endeavors, but in practice racism has been co-constructed with inaccurate depictions of human variation provided by scientists. Over our history, the AAPA, and many of its members, have been complicit in producing and reifying racist ideologies via the misuse, falsification, or biased production of scientific information. We acknowledge this history and stress that we should not paper over it even as we seek to end these practices and prevent the reemergence of misconceptions about race in the future. While science is often represented as objective, apolitical, and unbiased, many ostensibly biological concepts of race have cultural stereotypes, biases, and ethnocentric views embedded within them. We acknowledge that outdated and inaccurate ideas about race, and racism, still inform scientific research today, and are sometimes embedded in what otherwise appears to be "modern," technologically-advanced science. We stand against such practices. As scientists, we strive to eliminate the influences of bias, racial profiling, and other erroneous ways of thinking about human variation from our study designs, interpretations of scientific data, and reporting of research results. This is not simply due to concerns about how non-scientists use scientific research; it is also about how scientists themselves conceive, implement, analyze, and present their research. We offer this statement as a baseline for what we know about race and racism in order to help us do better science and better convey what we know about human biological variation to broader audiences. Racial categories do not provide an accurate picture of human biological variation. Variation exists within and among populations across the planet, and groups of individuals can be differentiated by patterns of similarity and difference, but these patterns do not align with socially-defined racial groups (such as whites and blacks) or continentally-defined geographic clusters (such as Africans, Asians, and Europeans). What has been characterized as "race" does not constitute discrete biological groups or evolutionarily independent lineages. Furthermore, while physical traits like skin color and hair texture are often emphasized in racial classification, and assumptions are often made about the pattern of genetic diversity relative to continental geography, neither follows racial lines. The distributi

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The American Association of Physical Anthropologists (AAPA) issues a formal statement arguing that race is not an accurate biological representation of human variation but is a social reality with real biological consequences via racism. It calls on biological anthropologists to acknowledge the discipline's complicity in racist ideologies and to eliminate bias from research.

Key findings

  • Humans share the vast majority (99.9%) of their DNA, and genetic and phenotypic variation does not map onto socially recognized racial groups or continental clusters; most genetic variants vary clinally across geographic space.
  • There is more genetic diversity in African and African diasporic populations than in others, and variants found outside Africa are largely a subset of those found within it; diversity generally decreases with distance from Africa.
  • Skin color, a trait traditionally tied to racial categories, is a product of long-term evolution involving more than 37 genetic loci, local environmental factors, migrations, and gene flow, and shows a clinal distribution that cannot be separated into discrete categories.
  • Racism (interpersonal and structural) demonstrably affects biology, health, and well-being, so race—though not a scientifically accurate biological concept—can have important biological consequences.

Methods

  • This is a consensus/position statement written by an AAPA subcommittee tasked with revising the previous 1996 AAPA statement on the Biological Aspects of Race (Am J Phys Anthropol, vol. 101, pp. 569–570).
  • It synthesizes existing evidence on genomic variation, phenotypic variation, and human evolutionary history rather than presenting new data or analyses.
  • No formal study design, sample, or statistical analysis is reported.

Limitations

  • The paper states no formal limitations; it is a normative statement rather than an empirical study.
  • Evident from the text: it presents no new data or systematic review methodology, and its claims rest on cited bodies of prior research rather than original analysis.
  • The text notes that understanding of the genetics underlying most polygenic traits is "incomplete," and that genetic ancestry tests oversimplify and misrepresent human genetic variation.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/ajpa.23882

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

  • Interpretationnone given

    Human phenotypic variation can be distributed within and across groups according to sex, age and even various local-level environments such as socioeconomic class or caste.

    “Furthermore, in addition to being correlated with environmental factors and geography, human phenotypic variation can be distributed within and across groups according to sex, age and even various local-level environments such as socioeconomic class or caste.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisereasoning

    Individuals exhibit substantial genetic and phenotypic variability, including individuals in the same community.

    “Individuals nevertheless exhibit substantial genetic and phenotypic variability.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.4 | The dilemma of race and racism · plain
      “Individuals nevertheless exhibit substantial genetic and phenotypic variability, including individuals in the same community.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Over the last five centuries, race has become a social reality that structures societies and how we experience the world.

    “Because of that, over the last five centuries, race has become a social reality that structures societies and how we experience the world.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.2 | What race is and what it is not · plain
      “While human racial groups are not biological categories, “race” as a social realityas a way of structuring societies and experiencing the worldis very real.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Diversity generally decreases in populations located further from Africa.

    “Moreover, diversity generally decreases in populations located further from Africa.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Racial categories have changed over time, reflecting the ways that societies alter their social, political and historical make-ups, access to resources, and practices of oppression.

    “Notably, racial categories have changed over time, reflecting the ways that societies alter their social, political and historical make-ups, access to resources, and practices of oppression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 30
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 13

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Race, while not a scientifically accurate biological concept, can have important biological consequences because of the effects of racism.

    “This means that race, while not a scientifically accurate biological concept, can have important biological consequences because of the effects of racism.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.4 | The dilemma of race and racism · plain
      “This means that “race,” while not a scientifically accurate biological concept, can have important biological consequences because of the effects of racism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Our genus (Homo) evolved between 2.5 and 3 million years ago in Africa, and migrated around and out of Africa by ~1.8 million years ago.

    “Our genus (Homo) evolved between 2.5 and 3 million years ago in Africa, and migrated around and out of Africa by ~1.8 million years ago.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Race is real, as is racism, and both have real biological consequences.

    “In this regard, race is real, as is racism, and both have real biological consequences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Outdated and inaccurate ideas about race, and racism, still inform scientific research today, and are sometimes embedded in what appears to be modern, technologically-advanced science.

    “We acknowledge that outdated and inaccurate ideas about race, and racism, still inform scientific research today, and are sometimes embedded in what otherwise appears to be “modern,” technologically-advanced science.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Early Homo consisted of a number of different forms (possibly species), some of which overlapped in time and space, but all of which were clearly human, with tool cultures and adaptations for highly proficient bipedal locomotion.

    “Early Homo consisted of a number of different forms (possibly species), some of which overlapped in time and space, but all of which were clearly human (and not ape-like), with tool cultures and adaptations for highly proficient bipedal locomotion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Race reflects the legacy of racist ideologies, as well as the sociopolitical considerations, cultural identities, and social experiences prevalent in the eras during and since the start of European settler colonialism.

    “It does, however, reflect the legacy of racist ideologies, as well as the sociopolitical considerations, cultural identities, and social experiences prevalent in the eras during and since the start of European settler colonialism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Similar phenotypes have arisen in both closely and distantly related groups adapting to similar environments, including genetic variants for light skin pigmentation which have evolved both within and outside the continent of Africa.

    “Similar phenotypes have arisen in both closely and distantly related groups adapting to similar environments, including genetic variants for light skin pigmentation which have, for example, evolved both within and outside the continent of Africa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Race constitutes an arbitrary and artificial division of continuous variation, and thus does not provide an accurate representation of human phenotypic variation or population similarities and differences.

    “Race constitutes an arbitrary and artificial division of continuous variation, and thus does not provide an accurate representation of human phenotypic variation or population similarities and differences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Humans share the vast majority (99.9%) of our DNA in common.

    “Humans share the vast majority (99.9%) of our DNA in common.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.4 | The dilemma of race and racism · plain
      “Humans share the vast majority (99.9%) of our DNA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Genetic and morphological evidence suggest that gene flow occurred repeatedly among diverse populations in the Late Pleistocene; many of these lineages provided elements to our genetic make-up that were crucial to our success as a diverse, adaptable species.

    “Genetic and morphological evidence suggest that gene flow occurred repeatedly among diverse populations in the Late Pleistocene; many of these lineages provided elements to our genetic make-up that were crucial to our success as a diverse, adaptable species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    The groupings of people that exist in our species are socially-defined, dynamic, and continually evolving amalgamations of socially- and biologically-interacting individuals with constantly-shifting boundaries.

    “The groupings of people that exist in our species are socially-defined, dynamic, and continually evolvingamalgamations of socially-and biologically-interacting individuals with constantly-shifting boundaries, reflecting the myriad ways that individuals, families, and other clusters of people create ties, move, trade, mate, reproduce, and shift their social identities and affiliations through time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Variation exists within and among populations across the planet, and groups can be differentiated by patterns of similarity and difference, but these patterns do not align with socially-defined racial groups or continentally-defined geographic clusters.

    “Variation exists within and among populations across the planet, and groups of individuals can be differentiated by patterns of similarity and difference, but these patterns do not align with sociallydefined racial groups (such as whites and blacks) or continentally-defined geographic clusters (such as Africans, Asians, and Europeans).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Skin color is a product of long-term evolution involving more than 37 genetic loci, local environmental factors, migrations and gene flow among populations, and shows a clinal distribution that cannot be separated into disparate categories.

    “For example, skin color, a trait traditionally associated with racial categories, is a product of long-term evolution involving more than 37 genetic loci, local environmental factors, migrations and gene flow among populations.As such, skin color shows a clinal distribution that cannot be separated into disparate categories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Over human evolutionary history, genetic and phenotypic variation shows gradual and continuous distributions over geography (clines), shaped by adaptations to new environments that arose as a result of migration and gene flow.

    “Over human evolutionary history, genetic and phenotypic variation shows gradual and continuous distributions over geography (clines), shaped by adaptations to new environments that arose as a result of migration and gene flow.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters.

    “Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.2 | What race is and what it is not · plain
      “What has been characterized as “race” does not constitute discrete biological groups or evolutionarily independent lineages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    We see more genetic diversity in African and African diasporic populations than in other populations, and the genetic variants found outside Africa are largely a subset of those found within it.

    “We also see more genetic diversity in African and African diasporic populations than in other populations, and the genetic variants found outside Africa are largely a subset of those found within it.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Human populations are not and never have been biologically discrete, truly isolated, or fixed.

    “Furthermore, human populations are notand never have beenbiologically discrete, truly isolated, or fixed.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.4 | The dilemma of race and racism · plain
      “Furthermore, human populations are notand never have beenbiologically discrete, isolated, or static.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Physical traits like skin color and hair texture, often emphasized in racial classification, and assumptions about genetic diversity relative to continental geography, do not follow racial lines.

    “Furthermore, while physical traits like skin color and hair texture are often emphasized in racial classification, and assumptions are often made about the pattern of genetic diversity relative to continental geography, neither follows racial lines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Ancestry tests often oversimplify and misrepresent the history and pattern of human genetic variation, and do so in ways that suggest more congruence between genetic patterns and culturally-defined categories than really exists.

    “In this regard, ancestry tests often oversimplify and misrepresent the history and pattern of human genetic variation, and do so in ways that suggest more congruence between genetic patterns and culturally-defined categories than really exists.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Evidence suggests that early species such as Homo erectus were functionally hairless, and presumably exhibited biological variation, including skin color variation, consistent with variation seen across the circumequatorial world today.

    “Evidence suggests that early species such as Homo erectus, as proficient hunter gatherers, were functionally hairless, and presumably exhibited biological variation, including skin color variation, consistent with variation seen across the circumequatorial world today.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The AAPA and many of its members have been complicit in producing and reifying racist ideologies via the misuse, falsification, or biased production of scientific information.

    “Over our history, the AAPA, and many of its members, have been complicit in producing and reifying racist ideologies via the misuse, falsification, or biased production of scientific information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Classifying human beings into different races has never been wholly innocent, unbiased, or apolitical; racial classification has long served to justify exploitation, oppression, discrimination, and structural racism.

    “Classifying human beings into different races has never been wholly innocent, unbiased, or apolitical; racial classification has long served to justify exploitation, oppression, discrimination, and structural racism.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Most traits are polygenic, and our understanding of the genetics underlying them is incomplete.

    “Most traits are also polygenic (influenced by multiple genes, or loci), and our understanding of the genetics underlying them is incomplete.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Race does not capture these histories or the patterns of human biological variation that have emerged as a result, nor does it provide a clear picture of genetic ancestry.

    “Race does not capture these histories or the patterns of human biological variation that have emerged as a result.Nor does it provide a clear picture of genetic ancestry.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Our species, Homo sapiens, arose through a complex process of migration, interaction, and gene exchange over the last few hundred thousand years or more.

    “Our species, Homo sapiens, arose through a complex process of migration, interaction, and gene exchange over the last few hundred thousand years or more.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Western concept of race emerged from and in support of European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination, and does not have its roots in biological reality but in policies of discrimination.

    “Instead, the Western concept of race must be understood as a classification system that emerged from, and in support of, European colonialism, oppression, and discrimination.It thus does not have its roots in biological reality, but in policies of discrimination.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.1 | Introduction · plain
      “The concept of race has developed hand-in-hand with racist ideologies over the last five centuries, and biological anthropology has played an important role in the creation and perpetuation of both the race concept and racist ideologies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    Genetic ancestry tests can identify clusters of individuals based on patterns of genetic similarity and difference, but the particular clusters inferred depend on the individuals included in the analysis.

    “Genetic ancestry tests can identify clusters of individuals based on patterns of genetic similarity and difference, but the particular clusters we infer depend on the individuals included in the analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    A substantial body of research demonstrates the many ways that racism can affect how our bodies, immune systems, and even our cognitive processes react and develop.

    “A substantial body of research demonstrates the many ways that racism can affect how our bodies, immune systems, and even our cognitive processes react and develop.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Environmentally-specific ultraviolet radiation levels have played an essential role in driving the evolution of variation in human skin color.

    “As one example, environmentally-specific ultraviolet radiation levels have played an essential role in driving the evolution of variation in human skin color.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Many ostensibly biological concepts of race have cultural stereotypes, biases, and ethnocentric views embedded within them.

    “While science is often represented as objective, apolitical, and unbiased, many ostensibly biological concepts of race have cultural stereotypes, biases, and ethnocentric views embedded within them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    We are all, in essence, hybrids, with humanity emerging from many tangled lineages that cannot be separated into discrete units with clear reproductive barriers.

    “We are all, in essence, hybrids, with humanity emerging from many tangled lineages -lineages that cannot be separated into discrete units with clear reproductive barriers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Most phenotypic variation is continuous, and adaptation, population history, and neutral evolutionary forces have shaped the frequencies and distribution of the variation we observe today and in the past.

    “Most phenotypic variation is continuous, and therefore understood in terms of the frequencies and distributions of traits.Adaptation, population history, and neutral evolutionary forces have all shaped the frequencies and distribution of the variation we observe today and in the past.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because the environment generally changes gradually as latitude/longitude changes, most phenotypic variation in humans is clinally distributed across geographic space, and human phenotypes vary in frequency across populations rather than being simply present or absent by population or continent.

    “Because the environment generally changes gradually as latitude/ longitude changes, most phenotypic variation in humans is clinally distributed across geographic space.As a result, human phenotypes vary in frequency across a range of populations, and are not simply present or absent by population or continent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation, and this has never been accurate in the past and remains inaccurate for contemporary human populations.

    “Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation.It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.2 | What race is and what it is not · plain
      “Racial categories do not provide an accurate picture of human biological variation.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.2 | What race is and what it is not · boosted
      “The distribution of biological variation in our species demonstrates that our socially-recognized races are not biological categories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Natural selection and adaptation to local environments have influenced populations.

    “Natural selection and adaptation to local environments have influenced populations as well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisenone given

    All humans living today belong to a single species, Homo sapiens, and share common descent.

    “Both the genomic and phenotypic variation that exists in our species reflects the fact that all humans living today belong to a single species, Homo sapiens, and share common descent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because the human lineage first emerged on the continent of Africa, longer population histories there allowed more genetic variation to accumulate in Africa, and repeated reductions in diversity occurred outside Africa as people dispersed and new populations were founded.

    “Because the human lineage first emerged on the continent of Africa, longer population histories there allowed more genetic variation to accumulate in Africa, and repeated reductions in diversity occurred outside Africa as people dispersed and new populations were founded.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
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Metadata

Authors
Fuentes, A., Ackermann, R. R., Athreya, S., Bolnick, D., Lasisi, T., Lee, S., McLean, S., & Nelson, R.
Affiliations
  • University of Notre Dame (US)
  • University of Cape Town (ZA)
  • Texas A&M University (US)
  • University of Connecticut (US)
  • Pennsylvania State University (US)
  • University of California, Riverside (US)
  • University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
  • Santa Clara University (US)
Corresponding author
Fuentes, Agustín
ORCID
Venue
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2019-06-14
Volume
169
Issue
3
Pages
400-402
ISSN
  • 0002-9483 (ISSN-L)
  • 1096-8644
DOI
10.1002/ajpa.23882
OpenAlex
W2951598669
Cited by
190
References
0
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 40 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 4
FWCI
12.36
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • American Journal of Physical Anthropology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Race, Genetics, and Society
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Medical History and Research
Keywords
race, racism, biological variation, human genetic variation, social construction of race, European colonialism, racism and health, physical anthropology, scientific racism, institutional racism, skin color, hair type, facial features, scientific integrity, history of anthropology, structural inequality, epigenetics
MeSH terms
Biological Variation, Population, Anthropology, Physical, Biological Evolution, Humans, Genetic Variation, Racial Groups, Racism

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