The DOI matches its Crossref record; 111 of the 111 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
FOCUS ON FORMATIVE FEEDBACK
Abstract
This paper reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a particular focus on formative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify the learner's thinking or behavior for the purpose of improving learning. According to researchers in the area, formative feedback should be multidimensional, nonevaluative, supportive, timely, specific, credible, infrequent, and genuine (e.g., Brophy, 1981; Schwartz & White, 2000). Formative feedback is usually presented as information to a learner in response to some action on the learner's part. It comes in a variety of types (e.g., verification of response accuracy, explanation of the correct answer, hints, worked examples) and can be administered at various times during the learning process (e.g., immediately following an answer, after some period of time has elapsed). Finally, there are a number of variables that have been shown to interact with formative feedback's success at promoting learning (e.g., individual characteristics of the learner and aspects of the task). All of these issues will be discussed in this paper. This review concludes with a set of guidelines for generating formative feedback.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
(1999) · Cited by 12,812
Handbook of research on teaching
Wittrock, M. C. (1986) · Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (Québec government) · Cited by 10,626
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256 · Cited by 9,745
Assessment and Classroom Learning
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998) · Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice · doi:10.1080/0969595980050102 · Cited by 8,152
Motivational processes affecting learning.
Dweck, C. S. (1986) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.10.1040 · Cited by 6,971
Social cognitive theory of self-regulation
Bandura, A. (1991) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90022-l · Cited by 6,875
Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022193728205 · Cited by 6,023
Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254 · Cited by 5,882
Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Crafts of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (2018) · Knowing, Learning, and Instruction · doi:10.4324/9781315044408-14 · Cited by 3,674
Experiential Learning: Examination of Factors Affecting Use and Outcomes
LaVan, H., & Carley, C. (1984) · Simulation & Games · doi:10.1177/0037550084152005 · Cited by 3,143
Research works printed but not linked: 25
- Aleven V., 2000, Proceedings of the 5th international conference on intelligent tutoring systems, ITS 2000, 292
- 10.3102/00346543051001005 · doi:10.3102/00346543051001005 · Paper page
- Bunderson V. C., 1983, Mental errors in arithmetic skills: Their diagnosis in precollege students
- Collins C., 1989, Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser, 453
- Corbett A. T., 1989, Proceedings of the fourth international conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education, 64
- Corbett A. T., 1990, Proceedings: Twelfth annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 796
- Corbett A. T., 2001, Proceedings of ACM CHI 2001 conference on human factors in computing systems, 245
- Fedor D. B., 1991, Recipient responses to performance feedback: A proposed model and its implications, Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 9, 73
- 10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.218 · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.218 · Paper page
- Goleman D., 1995, Emotional intelligence.
- Hartman H., 2002, Human learning and instruction, 23
- Hoska D. M., 1993, Interactive instruction and feedback, 105
- Johnson D., 1993, Interactive instruction and feedback, 133
- Kolb D., 1984, Experiential learning.
- Kulhavy R. W., 1993, Interactive instruction and feedback, 3
- Mathan S. A., 2002, Intelligent tutoring systems, 6th international conference ITS 2002: Vol. 2363. Lecture notes in computer science, 330
- Mayer J. D., 1997, Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators, 3
- Narciss S., 2004, Instructional design for multimedia learning, 181
- Sales G. C., 1993, Interpretive instruction and feedback.
- Shute V. J. Woltz D. J. &Regian J. W.(1989 May).An investigation of learner differences in an ITS environment: There's no such thing as a free lunch.Paper presented at the 4th international conference on artificial intelligence and education—AI‐ED '89 Amsterdam Holland.
- Smith P. L., 1999, Instructional design
- Swan M. B., 1983, Teaching decimal place value. A comparative study of conflict and positively‐only approaches
- 10.1037/0021-9010.84.2.249 · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.2.249 · Paper page
- VanLehn K., 1982, Bugs are not enough: Empirical studies of bugs, impasses and repairs in procedural skills, The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 3, 3
- Wiliam D., Second handbook of mathematics teaching and learning.
Cited by
Rethinking models of feedback for learning: the challenge of design
Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2012.691462 · Cited by 1,636
Automatic Generation of Programming Exercises and Code Explanations Using Large Language Models
Sarsa, S., Denny, P., Hellas, A., & Leinonen, J. (2022) · Proceedings of the 2022 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research - Volume 1 · doi:10.1145/3501385.3543957 · Cited by 497
Huisman, B., Saab, N., van den Broek, P., & van Driel, J. (2019) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2018.1545896 · Cited by 306
AI Tutoring Outperforms Active Learning
Kestin*, G., Miller*, K., Klales, A., Milbourne, T., & Ponti, G. (2024) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4243877/v1 · Cited by 214
Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback
Grawemeyer, B., Mavrikis, M., Holmes, W., Gutiérrez-Santos, S., Wiedmann, M., & Rummel, N. (2017) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-017-9188-z · Cited by 105
Metadata
- Authors
- Shute, V. J.
- Venue
- ETS Research Report Series
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2007-06
- Volume
- 2007
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2330-8516 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2085864841
- Cited by
- 455
- References
- 111
- FWCI
- 39.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
How to cite
Cite CoChat for the checks on this page, and the paper for its own findings.
- This page
- CoChat. (2026). Citation check: FOCUS ON FORMATIVE FEEDBACK. https://app.cochat.ai/papers/10.1002/j.2333-8504.2007.tb02053.x
- The paper
- Shute, V. J. (2007). FOCUS ON FORMATIVE FEEDBACK. ETS Research Report Series. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2333-8504.2007.tb02053.x
Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
