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Understanding the broad influence of sex hormones and sex differences in the brain
Open accessAbstract
Sex hormones act throughout the entire brain of both males and females via both genomic and nongenomic receptors. Sex hormones can act through many cellular and molecular processes that alter structure and function of neural systems and influence behavior as well as providing neuroprotection. Within neurons, sex hormone receptors are found in nuclei and are also located near membranes, where they are associated with presynaptic terminals, mitochondria, spine apparatus, and postsynaptic densities. Sex hormone receptors also are found in glial cells. Hormonal regulation of a variety of signaling pathways as well as direct and indirect effects on gene expression induce spine synapses, up- or downregulate and alter the distribution of neurotransmitter receptors, and regulate neuropeptide expression and cholinergic and GABAergic activity as well as calcium sequestration and oxidative stress. Many neural and behavioral functions are affected, including mood, cognitive function, blood pressure regulation, motor coordination, pain, and opioid sensitivity. Subtle sex differences exist for many of these functions that are developmentally programmed by hormones and by not yet precisely defined genetic factors, including the mitochondrial genome. These sex differences and responses to sex hormones in brain regions, which influence functions not previously regarded as subject to such differences, indicate that we are entering a new era of our ability to understand and appreciate the diversity of gender-related behaviors and brain functions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Metadata
- Authors
- McEwen, B. S., & Milner, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Rockefeller University (US)
- Weill Cornell Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- McEwen, Bruce S.
- Venue
- Journal of Neuroscience Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-11-07
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 24-39
- ISSN
- 0360-4012 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4547
- PMC
- PMC5120618
- OpenAlex
- W2552558587
- Cited by
- 642
- References
- 208
- Citations by year
- 2026: 65 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 126 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 3.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Neuroscience Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (HL098351, DA08259, HL096571, AG016765, MH41256, NS07080)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Endocrinology › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Keywords
- sex hormones, sex differences in brain, synaptic plasticity, neurotransmitter receptors, neuropeptide expression, oxidative stress, mood, cognitive function, blood pressure regulation, motor coordination, pain, opioid sensitivity, mitochondrial genome
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics, Gonadal Steroid Hormones, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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