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Cited by 114Consumer Attitudes and Food LabelingHealth Literacy and Information AccessibilityNutrition, Health and Food Behavior

The impact of consumer confusion on nutrition literacy and subsequent dietary behavior

Open access
Spiteri Cornish, Lara, Moraes, Caroline·2015·Psychology & Marketing
DOI 10.1002/mar.20800
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Abstract

This paper examines the impact of consumer confusion on nutrition knowledge, literacy, and dietary behavior. While previous research largely focuses on understanding why consumers might not respond to healthy eating communications, this paper seeks to uncover the various behavioral responses to such campaigns, particularly those that contravene health communication objectives. Using an interpretive methodology, findings suggest that most participants do respond to health communications by striving to eat healthily, but inadequate nutrition information derived from unreliable sources, flawed baseline nutrition knowledge, and poor nutrition literacy hinder participants’ efforts. Inconsistent, incomplete, and contradictory information leaves many participants feeling confused about how to implement healthy eating habits. Further, a lack of ability to differentiate between credible and unreliable sources of nutrition information means that many participants blame their confusion on policymakers, and express frustration and cynicism toward vague and often contradictory communications. This, in turn, increases participants’ reliance on food adverts, product labels, and other commercial sources of ambiguous yet appealing information. The paper's theoretical contribution includes a consumer confusion framework for healthy eating, and policy implications highlight that health campaigns seeking to increase consumer awareness of healthy eating are not enough. Policymakers must become the most credible sources of information about healthy eating, and distinguish themselves from competing and unreliable sources of nutrition information.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This interpretive study examines how consumer confusion about nutrition information affects nutrition knowledge, literacy, and dietary behavior. It finds that many consumers try to eat healthily but are hindered by inconsistent, incomplete, and contradictory information, flawed baseline knowledge, and reliance on commercial sources, leading to poor nutrition literacy and unhealthy food substitutions.

Key findings

  • Most participants were aware of healthy eating and wanted to eat healthily, but inadequate nutrition information from unreliable sources, flawed baseline nutrition knowledge, and poor nutrition literacy hindered their efforts.
  • More than half of participants said different sources offered competing dietary information that was often incomplete, contradictory, and confusing; almost all looked to TV food adverts for nutrition information and did not show the same antagonism toward commercial sources as toward government-led campaigns.
  • Many participants engaged in flawed substitutive behavior: more than half claimed they regularly replaced fruits and vegetables with fortified foods perceived to contain similar nutrients, and most participants’ substitute foods were often as unhealthy as the foods they replaced.
  • The paper proposes a consumer confusion framework for healthy eating, arguing that overload and ambiguity confusion lead to poor nutrition literacy, reduced nutrition self-efficacy, incorrect food substitutions, and dietary plans that contravene health message intentions.

Methods

  • Interpretivist, phenomenological study using in-depth interviews to explore participants’ everyday meanings and understandings of healthy eating.
  • Two-tiered purposive sampling recruited staff at a medium-sized UK university who were solely or mainly responsible for family food shopping: 93 expressed interest, and 34 took part (8 men, 26 women; aged 24–58; mean age 34 for women and 39 for men).
  • Participants kept shopping lists, receipts, and diaries for four major shopping trips over three months; receipts were analyzed for actual purchases and nutritional content, and interviews lasted one to two hours. Transcripts (8–20 single-spaced pages) were analyzed using an a priori template, line-by-line coding, independent coding by the first author and a research assistant, and iterative template revision until saturation.

Limitations

  • The paper states the study is exploratory, has a relatively small sample, and cannot be generalized to the entire UK population; it recommends future empirical research with large, representative samples.
  • The paper states the sample was relatively homogeneous, involving people from the same geographical area who work for the same institution, and acknowledges possible social-desirability bias despite using receipts and diaries to counteract it.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was predominantly female (26 of 34), self-selected from one UK university, and relied partly on self-report diaries; the interpretive design cannot establish causality.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/mar.20800

Cites

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 89 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    A lack of ability to differentiate between credible and unreliable sources of nutrition information means that many participants blame their confusion on policy-makers.

    “a lack of ability to differentiate between credible and unreliable sources of nutrition information means that many participants blame their confusion on policy-makers”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Inconsistent, incomplete, and contradictory information leaves many participants feeling confused about how to implement healthy eating habits.

    “Inconsistent, incomplete, and contradictory information leaves many participants feeling confused about how to implement healthy eating habits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    A lack of ability to differentiate between credible and unreliable sources of nutrition information means that many participants express frustration and cynicism towards vague and often contradictory communications.

    “and express frustration and cynicism towards vague and often contradictory communications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The lack of ability to differentiate between credible and unreliable sources increases participants' reliance on food adverts, product labels, and other commercial sources of ambiguous yet appealing information.

    “This, in turn, increases participants' reliance on food adverts, product labels, and other commercial sources of ambiguous yet appealing information.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Most participants respond to health communications by striving to eat healthily.

    “findings suggest that most participants do respond to health communications by striving to eat healthily”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 44
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 33
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants' understanding of healthy eating was distorted and vague.

    “During the interviews, it became clear that participants' understanding of healthy eating was distorted, and vague.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The quote reveals one of three main ways of understanding healthy diets: eating everything in moderation, eating more fruits and vegetables, and eating a diet that contains all the important nutrients, all of which only partially aligned with the WHO's (2007) definition of healthy eating.

    “This quote reveals one of three main ways of understanding healthy diets, namely eating everything in moderation, eating more fruits and vegetables, and eating a diet that contains all the important nutrients, all of which only partially aligned with the WHO's (2007) definition of healthy eating.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants declared that government health communications were absolutely terrible, changed their advice all the time, and never told them exactly what they needed to do.

    “They also declared that government health communications were”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants develop their understanding of healthy eating from varied sources, which, when combined, create a chaotic view of what a healthy diet may look like.

    “As illustrated in the two previous quotes, our participants revealed that they develop their understanding of healthy eating from varied sources, which, when combined, create a chaotic view of what a healthy diet may look like.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most female participants brought up the concept of calories when discussing nutrient content, yet only a few male participants mentioned calories.

    “Interestingly, most of the female participants also brought up the concept of calories when discussing nutrient content, yet only a few male participants mentioned calories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingown data

    Tanya thought that foods which are marketed as healthy, such as being high in fiber or having wholegrain, are also low in calories, and such perceptions appeared to be deeply ingrained in participants' minds.

    “Much like other participants, Tanya thought that foods which are marketed as healthy (i.e.marketed as being high in fiber or having wholegrain), are also low in calories, and such perceptions appeared to be deeply ingrained in participants' minds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    While health campaigns play an important role in raising awareness of the importance of healthy eating, the nutrition information that they offer is perceived by participants as inconsistent, incomplete, confusing, and contradictory across sociodemographic variables.

    “However, while health campaigns play an important role in raising awareness of the importance of healthy eating, the nutrition information that they offer is perceived by participants as inconsistent, incomplete, confusing, and contradictory across sociodemographic variables (Dallongeville et al., 2001;Grunert et al., 2012;Handu et al., 2008;Klohe-Lehman et al., 2006;Lee et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dallongeville et al., 2001

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    • cites Grunert et al., 2012

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    • cites Handu et al., 2008

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    Findingown data

    While none of the functional food substitutes that participants consumed had actually been marketed as being low in calories, most participants assumed they were because of the products' other health credentials.

    “While none of the functional food substitutes that participants consumed had actually been marketed as being low in calories, most participants assumed they were because of the products' other health credentials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Findings highlight that consumer confusion arises from both information overload, and ambiguous or misleading information.

    “Indeed, findings highlight that consumer confusion arises from both information overload, and ambiguous or misleading information (Mitchell et al., 2005;Mitchell & Papavassiliou, 1999):”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

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    • cites Mitchell & Papavassiliou, 1999

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    Findingown data

    An analysis of Rebecca's diary revealed that her food choices were frequently motivated by a desire to eat more healthily, and to consume foods that contained a number of nutrients.

    “An analysis of Rebecca's diary revealed that her food choices were frequently motivated by a desire to eat more healthily, and to consume foods that contained a number of nutrients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Consumers are likely to acquire their nutrition information from a variety of sources, many of which are unreliable.

    “Findings demonstrate that consumers are likely to acquire their nutrition information from a variety of sources, many of which are unreliable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Flawed nutrition knowledge results in poor nutrition literacy and the implementation of dietary changes that contravene the intentions of health messages.

    “This, in turn, results in poor nutrition literacy, and the implementation of dietary changes that contravene the intentions of health messages.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    One element of healthy eating communications that has a strong influence on its effectiveness is the clarity of the message, including the specificity of its recommendations.

    “One element of healthy eating communications that has a strong influence on its effectiveness is the clarity of the message, including the specificity of its recommendations (Henley, Donovan & Moorhead, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Henley, Donovan & Moorhead, 1998

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    Premisecitation

    UK healthy eating campaigns have successfully raised the target population's awareness of the importance of healthy eating, but have had little impact on changing what consumers actually eat.

    “While UK healthy eating campaigns have successfully raised the target population's awareness of the importance of healthy eating (see Department of Health, 2009; Hawkes, 2013), they have had little impact on changing what consumers actually eat (Dubé & Cantin, 2000;Young, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Department of Health, 2009

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    • cites Hawkes, 2013

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    • cites Dubé & Cantin, 2000

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some policy messages can be poorly targeted and contradictory, as different research offers different results about the same nutrition issue.

    “Some policy messages can sometimes be poorly targeted and contradictory, as different research offers different results about the same nutrition issue.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hornik & Kelly, 2007

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    There is no genuine agreement about which dietary strategies are most effective.

    “there is”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hornik & Kelly, 2007

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fear appeals used in healthy eating communications can lead consumers to avoid processing relevant health information and to develop negative attitudes and negative intentions toward the desired health behavior.

    “although fear appeals used in such communications can often help capture consumer attention in cluttered media environments, they can also lead consumers to avoid processing relevant health information, and to develop negative attitudes and negative intentions toward the desired health behavior (Cho & Salmon, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cho & Salmon, 2006

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Consumers need appropriate nutrition literacy, which goes beyond healthy eating knowledge and encompasses correct information, ability to understand such information, opportunity, and motivation to use nutrition knowledge to make healthy food choices leading to overall healthy diets.

    “Consumers need appropriate nutrition literacy, which goes beyond having healthy eating knowledge; it encompasses having correct information (i.e.legitimate knowledge), the ability to understand such information (i.e.nutrition self-efficacy), as well as the opportunity, and motivation, to use such nutrition knowledge to make healthy food choices that lead to overall healthy diets (Block et al., 201”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Block et al., 2011

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    Premisecitation

    Many healthy eating campaigns are not specific or clear enough regarding the recommendations they propose to consumers, which is likely to significantly reduce their impact.

    “many healthy eating campaigns are not specific or clear enough regarding the recommendations they propose to consumers, which are likely to significantly reduce their impact (Beaudoin, Fernandez, Wall & Farley, 2007;Snyder, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Beaudoin, Fernandez, Wall & Farley, 2007

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    • cites Snyder, 2007

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Nutrition literacy encompasses conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and the capacity, opportunity, and motivation to act on nutrition knowledge in various food situations and contexts.

    “Block et al. (2011)suggest that nutrition literacy encompasses three elements: conceptual knowledge (i.e.reading and understanding information about food, nutrition facts, and food sources), procedural knowledge (i.e.actually using that knowledge in food shopping choices, preparation, and consumption), and the capacity, opportunity, and motivation to act on that nutrition knowledge in various food”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Block et al., 2011

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Nutrition literacy goes beyond healthy eating knowledge and entails the motivation to apply nutrition information to food choices.

    “Nutrition literacy goes beyond healthy eating knowledge, and entails the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Block et al., 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The proposed antecedents of these types of confusion are similar information, excess information, and ambiguous information, respectively, with various moderators and mediators.

    “The proposed antecedents of these types of confusion are similar information, excess information, and ambiguous information, respectively, with various moderators (including age, education, gender), as well as mediators (including social environment, experience, involvement).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Persuasive techniques by experts can lead consumers to make incorrect judgments about source expertise, credibility, and legitimacy, and potentially to perceive false information to be true.

    “This can lead consumers to make incorrect judgments about source expertise, credibility, and legitimacy, and potentially to perceive false information to be true.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Confusion arises out of misinformation overload present in the decision-making environment, coupled with consumers' inability to correctly interpret the many dimensions of products or services through information processing activity.

    “common to all of them is the view that confusion arises out of (mis)information overload present in the decision-making environment, coupled with consumers' inability to correctly interpret the many dimensions of products or services through information processing activity (Mitchell et al., 2005;Mitchell & Papavassiliou, 1999;Turnbull, Leek & Ying, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

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    • cites Mitchell & Papavassiliou, 1999

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    • cites Turnbull, Leek & Ying, 2000

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are three main kinds of confusion: brand similarity, information overload, and ambiguous or misleading information.

    “Mitchell et al. (2005) and Mitchell and Papavassiliou (1999) suggest three main kinds of confusion, namely confusion resulting from brand similarity, another emanating from information overload, and finally confusion arising from ambiguous or misleading information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

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    • cites Mitchell & Papavassiliou, 1999

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The commercially-oriented health credentials of functional foods lead many consumers to believe that such foods are healthy alternatives to high-calorie, unhealthy foods, yet this is rarely the case.

    “Research demonstrates that the commercially-oriented health credentials of these foods (e.g.chocolate cereal with added fiber, white bread with added omega-3, candy with added vitamins) lead many consumers to believe that such foods are healthy alternatives to high-calorie, unhealthy foods, yet this is rarely the case (Menrad, 2003;Wansink, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Menrad, 2003

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    • cites Wansink, 2007

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    Interpretationcitation

    Such information may then be internalized, shaping how future nutrition information is interpreted, eventually resulting in a low correlation between subjective and objective nutrition knowledge, and hence leading to flawed dietary decisions.

    “Such information may then be internalized, shaping how future nutrition information is interpreted, eventually resulting in a low correlation between subjective and objective nutrition knowledge (Mattila & Wirtz, 2002), and hence leading to flawed dietary decisions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mattila & Wirtz, 2002

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Due to the evolving nature and pace of the information environment, evaluations of source expertise may be more fluid and open to debate than traditionally conceptualized.

    “due to”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mason & Scammon, 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Uncertainty and confusion about what constitutes healthy eating may lead consumers to adopt their own version of healthy eating based on their baseline nutrition knowledge and their interpretation of nutrition information obtained from various sources.

    “Finally, uncertainty and confusion about what constitutes healthy eating may lead consumers to adopt their own version of healthy eating based on their baseline nutrition knowledge, and their interpretation of nutrition information obtained from various sources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Flawed conceptual nutrition knowledge may be resulting in the implementation of dietary changes that go against the intentions of health messages.

    “Flawed conceptual nutrition knowledge may be resulting in the implementation of dietary changes that go against the intentions of health messages, and this is where the consumer confusion literature can enable an enhanced understanding of such issues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Subjective and objective knowledge are least likely to correspond when consumers suffer from self-deception or false expertise, as consumers can fail to distinguish between true and false experts, and therefore legitimate and illegitimate information.

    “Mattila and Wirtz (2002) argue that subjective and objective knowledge are least likely to correspond when consumers suffer from self-deception or false expertise, as consumers can fail to distinguish between true and false experts, and therefore legitimate and illegitimate information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mattila and Wirtz, 2002

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Nutrition literacy involves both understanding nutrition information and taking action on that knowledge to achieve nutrition goals and wellbeing.

    “Although nutrition knowledge means having nutrition-related information, nutrition literacy involves both understanding such information, and taking action on that knowledge to achieve nutrition goals and wellbeing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    More information does not necessarily lead to better informed consumers; it can result in information overload, leading to consumer apathy and lack of consumer confidence.

    “However, more information does not necessarily lead to better informed consumers; on the contrary, it can result in information overload, leading to consumer apathy, and lack of consumer confidence (Mitchell et al., 2005;Verbeke, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

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    • cites Verbeke, 2005

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    Premisecitation

    The commercially-oriented health credentials of functional foods may result in a health-halo effect, whereby consumers overestimate the health benefits of these foods and underestimate their calories, fat, and sugar content.

    “This, in turn, may also result in a health-halo effect (Chandon & Wansink, 2007), whereby consumers overestimate the health benefits of these foods, and underestimate their calories, fat, and sugar content.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chandon & Wansink, 2007

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Such information can be ambiguous and misleading, which, in turn, negatively impacts consumers' baseline nutrition knowledge.

    “As suggested by the extant literature, such information can be ambiguous and misleading, which, in turn, negatively impacts consumers' baseline nutrition knowledge (Grunert et al., 2012;Mattila & Wirtz, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Grunert et al., 2012

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    • cites Mattila & Wirtz, 2002

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Women are significantly more likely to do grocery shopping than men.

    “This predominance of female participants reflects the fact that women are significantly more likely to do grocery shopping than men (Bianchi, Sayer, Milkie & Robinson, 2012;Lachance-Grzela & Bouchard, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bianchi, Sayer, Milkie & Robinson, 2012

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    • cites Lachance-Grzela & Bouchard, 2010

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Having receipts ahead of the interviews enabled the researchers to analyze the nutritional content of a sample of the foods purchased.

    “Having receipts ahead of the interviews also enabled us to analyze the nutritional content of a sample of the foods purchased (i.e.calories, sugars, different types of fats, salt, additives, vitamins, and minerals, per 100g).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The issue among participants was not one of lack of motivation or opportunity to eat healthily, but one of poor nutrition knowledge, and poor ability to act on such knowledge in various food situations and contexts, where good food literacy is essential.

    “Therefore, the issue among our participants was not one of lack of motivation or opportunity to eat healthily, but one of poor nutrition knowledge, and poor ability to act on such knowledge in various food situations and contexts, where good food literacy is essential (Block et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Block et al., 2011

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The motivation, opportunity, and ability to understand a significant amount of often competing or even incorrect healthy eating information may be limited, thus leading to poor nutrition literacy and unhealthy food consumption.

    “Therefore, the motivation, opportunity, and ability to understand a significant amount of often competing or even incorrect healthy eating information (i.e.nutrition self-efficacy) may be limited, thus leading to poor nutrition literacy, and unhealthy food consumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Food can be a low-involvement product for some consumers in some contexts and situations, so such consumers are less prone to invest much effort and time in searching for, processing, and fully understanding food-related information.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-efficacy often serves as a predictor of a variety of health-related behaviors, as it determines the level of effort consumers will put into achieving an outcome, and how long they will continue this effort when faced with obstacles.

    “Indeed, self-efficacy (Bandura, 1993;Luszczynska, Diehl, Gutiérrez-Doña, Kuusinen & Schwarzer, 2004) often serves as a predictor of a variety of health-related behaviors, as it determines the level of effort consumers will put into achieving an outcome, and how long they will continue this effort when faced with obstacles (Warziski, Sereika, Styn, Music & Burke, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bandura, 1993

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    • cites Luszczynska, Diehl, Gutiérrez-Doña, Kuusinen & Schwarzer, 2004

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    • cites Warziski, Sereika, Styn, Music & Burke, 2008

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Such sources may offer personally appealing and convenient, but incorrect, nutrition ideas and consumption choices, leading consumers to adopt their own version of healthy eating based on their poor baseline nutrition knowledge and personal nutrition literacy.

    “Such sources may, in turn, offer personally appealing and convenient, but incorrect, nutrition ideas and consumption choices, leading consumers to adopt their own version of healthy eating based on their poor baseline nutrition knowledge, and personal nutrition literacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Nutritional information from receipts was used during the interviews to help assess nutrition literacy as well as knowledge.

    “Such information was again used during the interviews to help assess nutrition literacy as well as knowledge.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    People can have an overarching idea about what eating healthily means, but once that idea is considered in more depth, doubts and inconsistencies arise, which can influence dietary choices.

    “Harriet's and Anna's quotes show that people can have an overarching idea about what eating healthily means, but once that idea is considered in more depth, doubts and inconsistencies arise, which can influence dietary choices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    For the majority of interviewees, the healthiness of foods in general was assessed by the presence of nutrients, which demonstrates only partial understanding of nutrition information, incorrect implementation of healthy eating knowledge, and hence poor nutrition literacy.

    “It became clear that, for the majority of interviewees, the healthiness of foods in general was assessed by the presence of nutrients, which demonstrates only partial understanding of nutrition information, incorrect implementation of healthy eating knowledge, and hence poor nutrition literacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study requested shopping receipts a few days prior to the interviews and analyzed them to examine participants' actual shopping behavior, rather than what they claimed to buy.

    “We requested the shopping receipts a few days prior to the interviews, and analyzed them to examine participants' actual shopping behavior, that is, what foods they actually bought, rather than what they claimed to buy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Those three types of confusion can lead to a number of consumer coping strategies that can steer consumers to seek positive reduction of confusion.

    “Mitchell et al. (2005) argue that those three types of confusion can lead to a number of consumer coping strategies that can steer consumers to seek positive reduction of confusion (e.g.abandoning a purchase, clarifying buying goals or seeking additional information).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The previous quote illustrates a health-halo effect, in which the participant overestimates the health benefits of functional food substitutes, and underestimates their unhealthy properties due to the ambivalent information communicated by commercial sources.

    “The previous quote illustrates a health-halo effect (Chandon & Wansink, 2007), in which the participant overestimates the health benefits of functional food substitutes, and underestimates their unhealthy properties due to the ambivalent information communicated by commercial sources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chandon & Wansink, 2007

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overload confusion is relevant in the context of healthy eating, given the significant amount of pull versus push communication efforts between policy-makers and food marketers, which lead to an information-overloaded choice environment.

    “Overload confusion can be considered relevant in the context of healthy eating, given the significant amount of pull versus push communication efforts between policy-makers and food marketers, which lead to an information-overloaded choice environment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Interviews show that consumers are likely to experience anxiety as a result of frequent exposure to healthy eating communications, and a desire to adopt healthy eating patterns.

    “Our interviews show that consumers are likely to experience anxiety as a result of frequent exposure to healthy eating communications, and a desire to adopt healthy eating patterns (Brennan & Binney, 2010;Bublitz, Peracchio & Block, 2010;Cho & Salmon, 2006;Festinger, 1957;Henley et al., 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brennan & Binney, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bublitz, Peracchio & Block, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Cho & Salmon, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Class and other demographic factors can have an impact on consumer attitudes toward healthy eating and their responses to health communications.

    “Table 1 provides the demographic information for each participant, as class and other demographic factors can have an impact on consumer attitudes toward healthy eating, and their responses to health communications (Warin, Turner, Moore & Davies, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Warin, Turner, Moore & Davies, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    This paper reveals that, while striving to eat healthily in their attempts to lose weight or improve wellbeing, participants consistently make unhealthy dietary choices as a result of consumer confusion, poor nutrition information derived from ambiguous sources, flawed nutrition knowledge, and hence poor nutrition literacy.

    “This paper responds to this gap in the extant literature, and reveals that, while striving to eat healthily in their attempts to lose weight or improve wellbeing, participants consistently make unhealthy dietary choices as a result of consumer confusion, poor nutrition information derived from ambiguous sources, flawed nutrition knowledge, and hence poor nutrition literacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    More information does not lead to better informed or knowledgeable consumers; consumers respond to healthy eating communications from their level of nutrition understanding, so more information will not necessarily lead to correct nutrition understanding or adequate nutrition literacy.

    “Second, more information does not lead to better informed or knowledgeable consumers (Mitchell et al., 2005); our findings show that consumers respond to healthy eating communications, but they do so from their level of nutrition understanding, so more information will not necessarily lead to correct nutrition understanding or adequate nutrition literacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mitchell et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Consumer confusion regarding nutrition information affects nutrition knowledge and literacy, which in turn affects consumer perceptions of healthy foods and consequent dietary behaviors.

    “Interpretive findings suggest that consumer confusion regarding nutrition information is indeed affecting nutrition knowledge, and literacy, which in turn is impacting consumer perceptions of healthy foods, and consequent dietary behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Consumers are not failing to respond to healthy eating communications; rather they respond based on flawed nutrition knowledge and literacy.

    “The first main contribution of the paper is its ability to highlight that it is not that consumers are not responding to healthy eating communications, but rather that they are responding based on their flawed nutrition knowledge, and literacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This confusion results in the implementation of dietary programs that go against the intentions of healthy eating messages, and participants' own attempts to eat more healthily.

    “This confusion results in the implementation of dietary programs that go against the intentions of healthy eating messages, and participants' own attempts to eat more healthily.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants held jobs that reflected different socio-economic statuses and displayed different cultures and demographic characteristics.

    “While participants held jobs that reflected different socio-economic statuses, and displayed different cultures and demographic characteristics, future research could use heterogeneous samples for the purpose of generalization (Gray, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Consumers need appropriate nutrition literacy, including correct information, the capacity to interpret such information (nutrition self-efficacy), and the opportunity and motivation to apply correct nutrition knowledge in several contexts and situations.

    “Instead, consumers need appropriate nutrition literacy including correct information (i.e.legitimate knowledge derived from health communicators' information), the capacity to interpret such information (i.e.nutrition selfefficacy), and the opportunity as well as motivation to apply correct nutrition knowledge in several contexts, and situations (Block et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Block et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is always the possibility of social desirability bias in qualitative research.

    “Also, there is always the possibility of socialdesirability bias in qualitative research (Payne & Williams, 2005;Payne & Payne, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Payne & Williams, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Payne & Payne, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The sample size of this research is relatively small.

    “As is the case with much qualitative work, the sample size of this research is relatively small, so future studies should use large, representative samples of specific consumer populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study is exploratory in nature.

    “Research limitations include the exploratory nature of the study, so we recommend that it be followed by further empirical research.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Saturation was assumed when new interviews did not give rise to additional themes, and when the application of the final template to all earlier interviews resulted in minimal changes.

    “While no template is ever final (King, 2004), saturation was assumed when new interviews did not give rise to additional themes, and when the application of the final template to all earlier interviews resulted in minimal changes (Guest, Bunce & Johnson, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites King, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Guest, Bunce & Johnson, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    A small interpretive group consisting of the first author and a research assistant coded the data independently, and then compared their codes to ensure analytical accuracy.

    “A small interpretive group (Thompson et al., 1989), consisting of the first author, and a research assistant, coded the data independently, and then compared their codes to ensure analytical accuracy (Pratt, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Thompson et al., 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pratt, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

62 of 62

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Food can be a low-involvement product for some consumers in some contexts and situations, so such consumers are less prone to invest much effort and time in searching for, processing, and fully understanding food-related information.

    “An additional issue is that food can be a low-involvement product for some consumers in some contexts and situations, which means that such consumers are less prone to invest much effort and time in searching for, processing, and fully understanding information in food-related, lowinvolvement choice contexts.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' verbal reports in interviews accurately reflect their nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior.

    “Our interviews revealed high awareness of the need to eat healthily, which was prompted by health communications.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The interviewed participants' experiences are representative enough of consumers in general for the study's conclusions to apply beyond the sample.

    “Our interviews show that consumers are likely to experience anxiety as a result of frequent exposure to healthy eating communications, and a desire to adopt healthy eating patterns”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' food receipts and diaries accurately record their food purchases and consumption.

    “Yet, the analysis of their food receipts indicates that, much like Rebecca, the foods most participants used as substitutes were often as unhealthy as the ones they substituted.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Functional foods appear to be in the market to stay.

    “Such foods appear to be in the market to stay, so policy-makers need to gain a better understanding of how and why such foods are consumed if they are to offer appropriate rather than confusing information about healthy eating to consumers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Consumers require clear, unambiguous information about what healthy eating means, what healthy foods are, and what a healthy diet looks like.

    “Overall, policy-makers must understand that consumers require clear, unambiguous information about what healthy eating means, what healthy foods are, and what a healthy diet looks like, and must develop an intervention program that addresses such issues directly.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Participant age range excludes two listed participants

    Minor

    The stated maximum age is 58, but Table 1 lists Lucy as 62 and Jane as 60.

1 of 1

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 107 · Cited by 114

Research works printed but not linked: 8

  1. Corti L., 2003, The A‐Z of social research: A dictionary of key social science concepts
  2. Eagly A. H., 1993, The psychology of attitudes
  3. European Food Information Council (EUFIC). (2012).Fruit and vegetable consumption in Europe—Do Europeans get enough? EUFIC Review European Food Information Council No. 01/2012. Retrieved March 2014 fromhttp://www.eufic.org/article/en/page/RARCHIVE/expid/Fruit‐vegetable‐consumption‐Europe.
  4. 10.1007/s10389-009-0101-9 · DOI
  5. Hawkes C.(2013). Promoting healthy diets through nutrition education and changes in the food environment: An international review of actions and their effectiveness. Rome: Nutrition Education and Consumer Awareness Group Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved September 2014 fromhttp://www.fao.org/ag/humannutrition/nutritioneducation/69725/en/.
  6. Heasman M., 2001, The functional food revolution
  7. Kleinschmidt A., 2003, When food isn't just food, Research Leaflet, 2
  8. Produce for Better Health Foundation. (2009). New report summarizes fruit and vegetable consumption data by state (Press Release: September 29 2009). Retrieved April 2014 from Produce for Better Health Foundation web sitehttp://pbhfoundation.org/media/press_rel/pressrelease.php?recordid=20457.

Authors
Spiteri Cornish, L., & Moraes, C.
Affiliations
  • Coventry University
  • Coventry University (GB)
ORCID
Moraes, Caroline
Venue
Psychology & Marketing
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2015-04-20
Volume
32
Issue
5
Pages
558-574
ISSN
  • 0742-6046 (ISSN-L)
  • 1520-6793
DOI
10.1002/mar.20800
OpenAlex
W2165802363
Cited by
114
References
107
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
FWCI
8.57
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Psychology and Marketing (publishedVersion)
  • Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (publishedVersion)
  • Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
  • Pure (Coventry University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Coventry University Open Collections (Coventry university) (submittedVersion)
  • University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • The Open Collections (Coventry University) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Consumer Attitudes and Food Labeling
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Literacy and Information Accessibility
  • Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Keywords
consumer confusion, nutrition literacy, dietary behavior, nutrition knowledge, health communication, consumer cynicism, food advertising, product labels, health policy

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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