CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 4Memory Processes and InfluencesReading and Literacy DevelopmentVisual and Cognitive Learning Processes

Applying distributed practice in the schools to enhance retention of spelling words

Open access
Petersen‐Brown, Shawna, Riese, Abbey M., Schneider, Melissa M., Ray, Jannine E., Clonkey, Hannah R.·2023·Psychology in the Schools
DOI 10.1002/pits.22943
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Distributed practice is often cited as a best practice for instruction, although research on the application of spaced practice to schools is limited. The impact of practice distributed across days and the impact of practice distributed within sessions were examined. Second and third grade participants (n = 88) were randomly assigned to practice eight spelling words in a massed or distributed fashion, both within sessions and across sessions. Retention was measured immediately and 28 days after the final practice sessions. No differences in immediate retention were observed. Retention after 28 days was greater when across‐session distributed practice was provided. These results suggested that practice distributed across weekly sessions was most beneficial.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/pits.22943

Cites

11 of 11 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Other studies asked learners to review and practice content through complex exercises, such as the Cover-Copy-Compare process for learning spelling words.

    “while others still asked learners to review and practice content through the use of complex exercises (e.g., the Cover–Copy–Compare process for learning spelling words; Petersen-Brown et al., 2023)”

    From The Distributed Practice Effect on Classroom Learning: A Meta-Analytic Review of Applied Research (2025) · cites this paper as Petersen-Brown et al., 2023

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 31

  1. Balota, D. A., Duchek, J. M., & Logan, J. M. (2007). Is expanded retrieval practice a superior form of spaced retrieval? A critical review of the extant literature. In J. S. Nairne (Ed.), The foundations of remembering: Essays in honor of Henry L. Roediger III (pp. 83-106). Psychology Press.
  2. Benjamin, A. S., & Tullis, J. (2010). What makes distributed practice effective? Cognitive Psychology, 61(3), 228-247.
  3. Berninger, V. W., Vaughan, K., Abbott, R. D., Begay, K., Coleman, K. B., Curtin, G., Hawkins, J. M., & Graham, S. (2002). Teaching spelling and composition alone and together: Implications for the simple view of writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 291-304.
  4. Bower, G. H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning. In L. W. Gregg (Ed.), Cognition in learning and memory (pp. 51-88).
  5. Carpenter, S. K., Cepeda, N. J., Rohrer, D., Kang, S. H. K., & Pashler, H. (2012). Using spacing to enhance diverse forms of learning: Review of recent research and implications for instruction. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 369-378.
  6. Codding, R. S., Volpe, R. J., Martin, R. J., & Krebs, G. (2019). Enhancing mathematics fluency: Comparing the spacing of practice sessions with the number of opportunities to respond. School Psychology Review, 48(1), 88-97.
  7. Eckert, T. L., Codding, R. M., Truckenmiller, A. J., & Rheinheimer, J. L. (2009). Improving children's fluency in reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing: A review of evidence-based academic interventions. In A. Akin-Little, S. G. Little, M. A. Bray, & T. J. Kehle (Eds.), Behavioral interventions in schools: Evidence-based positive strategies (pp. 111-124). American Psychological Association.
  8. Erion, J., Davenport, C., Rodax, N., Scholl, B., & Hardy, J. (2009). Cover-copy-compare and spelling: One versus three repetitions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 18(4), 319-330.
  9. Fishman, E. J., Keller, L., & Atkinson, R. C. (1968). Massed versus distributed practice in computerized spelling drills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 59(4), 290-296.
  10. Gerbier, E., & Toppino, T. C. (2015). The effect of distributed practice: Neuroscience, cognition, and education. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 4(4), 49-59.
  11. Gettinger, M., Bryant, N. D., & Fayne, H. R. (1982). Designing spelling instruction for learning-disabled children: An emphasis on unit size, distributed practice, and training for transfer. The Journal of Special Education, 16(4), 439-448.
  12. Graham, S., Morphy, P., Harris, K. R., Fink-Chorzempa, B., Saddler, B., Moran, S., & Mason, L. (2008). Teaching spelling in the primary grades: A national survey of instructional practices and adaptations. American Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 796-825.
  13. Graham, S., & Santangelo, T. (2014). Does spelling instruction make students better spellers, readers, and writers? A meta- analytic review. Reading and Writing, 27(9),1703-1743.
  14. Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.
  15. Lee, T. D., & Genovese, E. D. (1988). Distribution of practice in motor skill acquisition: Learning and performance effects reconsidered. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59(4), 277-287.
  16. Lee, T. D., & Genovese, E. D. (1989). Distribution of practice in motor skill acquisition: Different effects for discrete and continuous tasks. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60(1), 59-65.
  17. MacSuga-Gage, A. S., & Simonsen, B. (2015). Examining the effects of teacher-directed opportunities to respond on student outcomes: A systematic review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 38(2), 211-239.
  18. Maddox, G. B. (2016). Understanding the underlying mechanism of the spacing effect in verbal learning: A case for encoding variability and study-phase retrieval. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 28(6), 684-706.
  19. Moss, V. D. (1995). The efficacy of massed versus distributed practice as a function of desired learning outcomes and grade level of the student (Doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, 1995). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 5204.
  20. Nies, K. A., & Belfiore, P. J. (2006). Enhancing spelling performance in students with learning disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 15(3), 163-170.
  21. Powell, S. L., Dunhon, G., Poncy, B. C., Mwavita, M., & Englen, A. J. N. (2020). Distributed practice in math facts fluency: A comparative analysis of varied intersession intervals. School Psychology Review, 51(2), 517-525.
  22. Rea, C. P., & Modigliani, V. (1985). The effect of expanded versus massed practice on the retention of multiplication facts and spelling lists. Human Learning, 4(1), 11-18.
  23. Ritchey, K. D., Coker, D. L., & McCraw, S. B. (2010). A comparison of metrics for scoring beginning spelling. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 35(2), 78-88.
  24. Rohrer, D. (2015). Student instruction should be distributed over long time periods. Educational Psychology Review, 27(4), 635-643.
  25. Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12-39.
  26. Skarr, A., McLaughlin, T. F., Derby, K. M., Meade, K., & Williams, R. L. (2012). A comparison of direct instruction flashcards and cover, copy, compare to teach spelling to elementary school students. Academic Research International, 2(2), 247-263.
  27. Skinner, C. H., McLaughlin, T. F., & Logan, P. (1997). Cover, copy, and compare: A self-managed academic intervention across skills, students, and settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 295-306.
  28. Swanson, H. L. (1999). Instructional components that predict treatment outcomes for students with learning disabilities: Support for a combined strategy and direct instruction model. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14(3), 129-140.
  29. Treiman, R. (2018). Teaching and learning spelling. Child Development Perspectives, 12(4), 235-239.
  30. Weiser, B., & Mathes, P. (2011). Using encoding instruction to improve the reading and spelling performances of elementary students at risk for literacy difficulties: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 170-200.
  31. Williams, K. J., Walker, M. A., Vaughn, S., & Wanzek, J. (2017). A synthesis of reading and spelling interventions and their effects on spelling outcomes for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(3), 286-297.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Petersen‐Brown, S., Riese, A. M., Schneider, M. M., Ray, J. E., & Clonkey, H. R.
Affiliations
  • Minnesota State University, Mankato (US)
  • Tri‐City United Schools Montgomery Minnesota USA
Corresponding author
Petersen‐Brown, Shawna
ORCID
Venue
Psychology in the Schools
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2023-04-29
Volume
60
Issue
9
Pages
3486-3503
ISSN
  • 0033-3085 (ISSN-L)
  • 1520-6807
DOI
10.1002/pits.22943
OpenAlex
W4367395319
Cited by
4
References
11
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1
FWCI
0.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Psychology in the Schools (publishedVersion)
  • Cornerstone (Minnesota State University, Mankato) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
Keywords
distributed practice, spaced practice, spelling retention, spelling instruction, massed practice, second grade, third grade, long-term retention, elementary school students

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review