Model-Based and Model-Free Mechanisms of Human Motor Learning

Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction

Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. (2005) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks · doi:10.1109/tnn.2004.842673 · Cited by 25,268

Untitled work

(1995) · Cited by 10,558

A neural substrate of prediction and reward

Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.275.5306.1593 · Cited by 9,388

Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans.

Squire, L. R. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.2.195 · Cited by 5,376

Optimal feedback control as a theory of motor coordination

Todorov, E., & Jordan, M. I. (2002) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn963 · Cited by 3,081

Adaptive representation of dynamics during learning of a motor task

Shadmehr, R., & Mussa-Ivaldi, F. (1994) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.14-05-03208.1994 · Cited by 2,612

Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control

Daw, N. D., Niv, Y., & Dayan, P. (2005) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn1560 · Cited by 2,533

Internal models in the cerebellum

Wolpert, D. M., Miall, R. C., & Kawato, M. (1998) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01221-2 · Cited by 2,469

Forward Models for Physiological Motor Control

Miall, R. C., & Wolpert, D. M. (1996) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/s0893-6080(96)00035-4 · Cited by 2,260

Reinforcement learning

Barto, A. (1998) · IFAC Proceedings Volumes · doi:10.1016/s1474-6670(17)38315-5 · Cited by 2,172

Facilitative effects of use-dependent learning on interlimb transfer of visuomotor adaptation in a person with congenital mirror movements

Jo, Y., Javidialsaadi, M., & Wang, J. (2022) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2022.102973 · Cited by 2

The relationship between reinforcement and explicit strategies during visuomotor adaptationPreprint

Codol, O., Holland, P. J., & Galea, J. M. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/206284 · Cited by 2

Virtual Normalization of Physical Impairment: A Pilot Study to Evaluate Motor Learning in Presence of Physical Impairment

Jarrett, C. A., & McDaid, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2017.00101 · Cited by 1

Knowing that as knowing how: a neurocognitive practicalism

Piccinini, G., & Hetherington, S. (2024) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-024-04843-1 · Cited by 2

Interaction between model-based and model-free mechanisms in motor learning

Kumar, S. A. D., Kumar, A., & Kumar, N. (2025) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00219.2025 · Cited by 1

Modeling human visuomotor adaptation with a disturbance observer framework

Sharma, G., Hart, B. M. ’., de Xivry, J. O., Henriques, D. Y. P., & Broucke, M. E. (2026) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013937 · Cited by 1

A structural causal model for robot-assisted upper-limb neurorehabilitation

Balasubramanian, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences · doi:10.3389/fresc.2026.1819379 · Cited by 1

Acoustic and kinematic characteristics of vowel production through a virtual vocal tract in dysarthria

Berry, J., Kolb, A., North, C., & Johnson, M. T. (2014) · Interspeech (USB) · doi:10.21437/interspeech.2014-378 · Cited by 1

Towards Modeling Human Motor Learning Dynamics in High-Dimensional Spaces

Kamboj, A., Ranganathan, R., Tan, X., & Srivastava, V. (2022) · Proceedings of the ... American Control Conference/Proceedings of the American Control Conference · doi:10.23919/acc53348.2022.9867377 · Cited by 1

Generalization of visuomotor adaptation associated with use-dependent learning across different movement workspaces and limb postures

Bao, S., Lei, Y., Keenan, K. G., & Wang, J. (2022) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2022.103017 · Cited by 1

Automatic learning mechanisms for flexible human locomotion

Rossi, C., Leech, K. A., Roemmich, R. T., & Bastian, A. J. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.101671.3 · Cited by 1

Motor Control Needs to Build More Bridges Across Levels of Analysis

Ranganathan, R., Lee, M.-H., & Krishnan, C. (2024) · Motor Control · doi:10.1123/mc.2024-0119 · Cited by 1

Savings in visuomotor learning are associated with connectivity changes within a cerebello-thalamo-cortical network encoding movement errors

Struber, L., Lamalle, L., Barraud, P.-A., Courvoisier, A., Laboissière, R., Ito, T., Nougier, V., Ostry, D. J., & Cignetti, F. (2025) · Brain Structure and Function · doi:10.1007/s00429-025-03013-4 · Cited by 1

Entropic Policy Composition with Generalized Policy Improvement and Divergence Correction.Preprint

Hunt, J. J., Barreto, A. D. M. S., Lillicrap, T., & Heess, N. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · Cited by 1

A novel approach to the empirical characterization of learning in biological systemsPreprint

Cohen, Y., Cvitanović, P., & Solla, S. A. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.01.10.426118 · Cited by 1

Mixture of Learning Strategies Underlies Rodent Behavior in Dynamic ForagingPreprint

Le, N. M., Yıldırım, M., Wang, Y., 杉原, 弘., Jazayeri, M., & Sur, M. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.03.14.484338 · Cited by 3

Agrammatic output in non-fluent/Broca’s aphasia as a rational behaviorPreprint

Fedorenko, E. G., Ryskin, R. A., & Gibson, E. A. F. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/46vdu · Cited by 1

Automatic learning mechanisms for flexible human locomotionPreprint

Rossi, C., Leech, K. A., Roemmich, R. T., & Bastian, A. J. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.101671 · Cited by 1

Automatic learning mechanisms for flexible human locomotionPreprint

Rossi, C., Leech, K. A., Roemmich, R. T., & Bastian, A. J. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.101671.2 · Cited by 1

Motor Learning Outside the Body: Broad Skill Generalisation with an Extra Robotic LimbPreprint

Molina-Sanchez, M., Dowdall, L., Dominijanni, G., Pavalkyte, V., Gallay, C., da Silva, E., Clode, D., & Makin, T. R. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.06.27.661550 · Cited by 1

Policy-Gradient Reinforcement Learning as a General Theory of Practice-Based Motor Skill LearningPreprint

Haith, A. M. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.109934.1 · Cited by 1

Motor learning during reaching movements : model acquisition and recalibration

Telgen, S. (2015) · UCL Discovery (University College London)

Multi-rate State-dependent Primitives Underlie The Motor Adaptation and Unlearning to Motion-Depedent Force Perturbations

Asl, E. H. (2015) · doi:10.13021/mars/5027

A State Space Model of a Visuomotor Rotation ExperimentPreprint

Broucke, M. E. (2017) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/197483

The Effects of Motor Modularity on Performance, Learning, and Generalizability in Upper-Extremity Reaching: a Computational AnalysisPreprint

Borno, M. A., Hicks, J. L., & Delp, S. L. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/804096

When motor control hangs in the balance: Sensorimotor learning during balance-challenging conditions

Bakkum, A. (2021) · Summit (Simon Fraser University)

The role of cerebellum in action acquisition and motor learning

Dagioglou, M. (2014) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)

Two different motor learning mechanisms contribute to learning reaching movements in a rotated visual environment

Chu, V. W., & Sanger, T. D. (2014) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.3940 · Cited by 1

Aktuelle Motoriktheorien

Künzell, S. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-53386-4_56-2

Practice Schedules Affect How Learners Correct Their Errors: Secondary Analysis From a Contextual Interference Study

Taylor, S. E., Fawver, B. J., Thomas, J. L., WILLIAMS, A. M., & Lohse, K. R. (2022) · Journal of Motor Learning and Development · doi:10.1123/jmld.2022-0021

Abrupt, but not gradual, motor adaptation biases saccadic target selection

Teunissen, L., Selen, L. P. J., & Medendorp, W. P. (2023) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00223.2022

Task-relevant object shape properties act as poor but viable cues for the attribution of motor errors to external objectsPreprint

Modchalingam, S., Ayala, M. N., & Henriques, D. Y. P. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.04.27.538583

Recent Advancements in Deep Learning Applications and Methods for Autonomous Navigation: A Comprehensive ReviewPreprint

Golroudbari, A. A., & Sabour, M. H. (2023) · doi:10.22541/au.168727976.63672670/v1 · Cited by 1

Development of Fine Motor Skills for Early Childhood Based on Augmented Reality

Khasanah, U., Chusna, N. L., & Fatonah, U. (2023) · Advances in computer science research · doi:10.2991/978-94-6463-236-1_8

The Effect of Motor Imagery Practice on an Aiming Task with Attentional Focus Cues

Yamada, M., Barclift, A. D., & Raisbeck, L. D. (2024) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2024.2350721

Physical Cognition in Altered Gravity: Link Between Sensorimotor and Cognitive AdaptabilityPreprint

Cheng, M., Han, D., Haq, M., & Ossmy, O. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4412271/v1

Development of an Evaluation Model for Cognitive Decline by Quantification of Motor Learning

Toshima, K., Takato, R., Tamaru, T., & Morita, Y. (2024) · International Convention on Rehabilitation Engineering & Assistive Technology · doi:10.1109/i-create62067.2024.10776470

Relationship between overall right pre-frontal cortex activity and learning and retention of a visuomotor adaptation task: A continuous analysis

Ramos, M. Á., Busquets, A., Ferrer-Uris, B., Eken, A., Bešlija, F., Zhang, F., Durduran, T., & Angulo-Barroso, R. M. (2025) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102827

Effect of simple motor exercise on motor adaptation in complex dynamic tasks: exploring age-related variations

Kiani, K., & Fu, Q. (2025) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00194.2025

Advancing Stroke Recovery Through Operant Conditioning of Corticomuscular Coherence

Mark, J. I., Cunningham, D. A., & Cassidy, J. M. (2025) · Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.1177/09226028251379344 · Cited by 1

EEG Dynamics of Movement Preparation and Error Processing Distinguish Motor Adaptation From De Novo LearningPreprint

Gastrock, R. Q., Henriques, D. Y. P., & Hart, B. M. ’. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2025.12.11.693740

Adaptive integration of model-based and model-free strategies in human reinforcement learning of reachable spacePreprint

Zhu, T., Syan, R., Vejandla, S., Gallivan, J. P., Wolpert, D. M., & Flanagan, J. R. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.02.709046

Use-dependent learning biases the initial state but not the learning dynamics of implicit adaptation

Luo, Y., & Wei, K. (2026) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-026-07268-z

Investigation of Anticipation in Motor Control Using Kinematic and Kinetic Metrics in a Leader-Follower Task

Eşme, İ., Turgut, A. E., & Arıkan, K. B. (2026) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16062840

Policy-Gradient Reinforcement Learning as a General Theory of Practice-Based Motor Skill LearningPreprint

Haith, A. M. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.109934 · Cited by 1

Practice-dependent refinement of motor execution is retained and broadly transferable but constrained by movement directionPreprint

Gastrock, R. Q., Nezakatiolfati, S., King, A., & Henriques, D. Y. P. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.03.20.713284

Etude des corrélats électrophysiologiques du traitement des erreurs motrices et des mécanismes de l'adaptation sensorimotrice

Torrecillos, F. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/aa66f432z8f86z4821za5e2z30e11c35f2a4

Characterizing the reciprocal adaptation in physical human-robot interaction to address the inter-joint coordination in neurorehabilitation

Proietti, T. (2017) · doi:10.70675/780f53c6zb014z4f60zb59dzb467d3a5917b

Revisiting sensorimotor adaptation : new insights from inter-task transfer of after-effects in prism adaptation

Fleury, L. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/13986d22zf404z47e4zafc6z4859d7afb56c

Les effets du sommeil, du passage du temps et de l'activité sur l'apprentissage moteur

Truong, C. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/7f7b52d0z6f50z49b4zbe28z59fcc37f6bb1

Signal-Dependent Planning Noise Reduces Task Interference by Assisting in the Formation of Stable Motor Primitives in a Neural Network Model of Muscle Coordination Learning

Feng, D. W., Reinkensmeyer, D. J., & Perez-Ibarra, J. C. (2026) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco.a.1512

Rôle multifacette de l’activité bêta du cortex médial dans l'encodage de signaux de rétroaction qualitativement distincts

Schwey, A. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/e6a60718z9e53z41fez9f78z9841e554d565

Consolidation Separates Implicit and Explicit Components of Compound Motor MemoriesPreprint

Kumar, A. S., Kumar, A. S., & Kumar, N. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.04.15.718660

Reward and punishment differentially shape basketball free-throw learningPreprint

Papaxanthis, C., Crognier, L., Pibarot, E., Gaveau, J., Ruffino, C., & Vassiliadis, P. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.04.28.721312

EEG dynamics of movement preparation and error processing in motor adaptation and De Novo learning

Gastrock, R. Q., Henriques, D. Y. P., & Hart, B. M. ’. (2026) · Discover Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s13064-026-00260-x

The contribution of explicit processes to reinforcement-based motor learningPreprint

Brum, G. L., Codol, O., & Holland, P. J. (2018) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)

Bio-Inspired Adaptive Optimal Control for Stable and Efficient Motor Learning

Li, F., & Yang, Q. (2026) · International Conference on Intelligent Computing and Signal Processing (ICSP) · doi:10.1109/icsp69961.2026.11540639

Disorders of the Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum: A Comprehensive Review of Speech Sensorimotor Symptoms and Responses to Feedback Perturbations

Wang, H., & Max, L. (2026) · Neurobiology of Language · doi:10.1162/nol.a.291

Successful reinforcement history suppresses explicit and implicit error corrections

Buggeln, J. H., Muscara, N. R., Sullivan, S. R., Calalo, J. A., Ngo, T. T., Short, M., Roth, A. M., Carter, M. J., & Cashaback, J. G. A. (2026) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1014574

Beyond visualization: Elite alpine skiers and coaches’ insights into simulation training

Tajet, S. L., Meland, A., Magelssen, C., Lemyre, P., Reid, R., & Pensgaard, A. M. (2026) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2026.2733248

Computer mouse weight is associated with one-week motor skill improvement in a large naturalistic video game cohortPreprint

Listman, J. B., & Mackey, W. E. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.10.06.757150

Maximizing the Effects of Passive Training on Visuomotor Adaptation By Incorporating Other Motor Learning Strategies

Lei, Y. (2015) · UWM Digital Commons (University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee)

Model-Free Robust Optimal Feedback Mechanisms of Biological Motor Control

Bian, T., Wolpert, D. M., & Jiang, Z. (2020) · Neural Computation · doi:10.1162/neco_a_01260 · Cited by 35

Model-based and model-free reinforcement learning: the experiments

Dayan, P. (2011) · Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/conf.fncom.2011.53.00019

Rethinking motor learning and savings in adaptation paradigms: model-free memory for successful actions combines with internal models

Huang, V. S., Haith, A., Mazzoni, P., & Krakauer, J. W. (2011) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.04.012 · Cited by 472

Structure Learning in Motor Control:A Deep Reinforcement Learning ModelPreprint

Weinstein, A., & Botvinick, M. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1706.06827 · Cited by 12

Learning Similar Actions by Reinforcement or Sensory-Prediction Errors Rely on Distinct Physiological Mechanisms

Uehara, S., Mawase, F., & Celnik, P. A. (2017) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx214 · Cited by 52